最近70篇关于中国环境生态的经济学papers合辑！

凡是搞计量经济的，都关注这个号了

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所有计量经济圈方法论丛的code程序, 宏微观数据库和各种软件都放在社群里.欢迎到计量经济圈社群交流访问.

前些日，咱们圈子引荐了①“实证研究中用到的200篇文章, 社科学者常备toolkit”、②实证文章写作常用到的50篇名家经验帖, 学者必读系列、③过去10年AER上关于中国主题的Articles专辑、④AEA公布2017-19年度最受关注的十大研究话题, 给你的选题方向，⑤Python, Stata, R软件史上最全快捷键合辑，受到各位学者欢迎和热议，很多博士生导师纷纷推荐给指导的学生参阅。

之前，咱们引荐了合成控制法（关于合成控制法SCM的33篇精选Articles专辑！）和双重差分法一样（关于双重差分法DID的32篇精选Articles专辑！），断点回归设计RDD（关于(模糊)断点回归设计的100篇精选Articles专辑！）等计量方法。同时，也引荐了①使用CFPS, CHFS, CHNS数据实证研究的精选文章专辑！，②清华北大经管社科数据库有哪些? 不要羡慕嫉妒恨！，③金融领域三大中文数据库, CSMAR, CCER, Wind和CNRDS，④经济学研究常用中国微观数据手册等数据库。今天，能源环境研究小组引荐70篇关于中国环境生态领域的期刊文章（JEEM和EE），感兴趣的学者可以在社群下载交流和讨论。下面每一篇文章都值得年轻学者在2019-nCoV期间认真研习，毕竟每个个体在特殊时期都有自己的角色和相应责任。

在认真阅读研习以下文章前，建议各位先看看这四篇文章：①JEEM环境与资源经济学最新研究趋势和热点话题，②事件研究法用于DID的经典文献"环境规制"论文数据和程序，③环境, 能源和资源经济学手册推荐, 经典著作需要反复咀嚼，④国际贸易与气候变化问题:一个文献综述。

1.环境经济学

环境经济学是指运用经济科学和环境科学的原理和方法，分析经济发展和环境保护的矛盾，以及经济再生产、人口再生产和自然再生产三者之间的关系，选择经济、合理的物质变换方式，以使用最小的劳动消耗为人类创造清洁、舒适、优美的生活和工作环境。

环境经济学是一门快速发展的新兴学科，近几10年来的发展历史表明，环境经济分析已经呈现出了各种令人鼓舞的前景，这可以从最近出版的大量教科书、专论、期刊、各种学术讨论会以及相关国际项目中得到证实。这意味着环境经济研究正逐步走向成熟，其加速增长的势头也反映了环境经济分析的丰硕成果。而且，一方面随着主流经济学的发展，环境经济学能不断从中吸取营养，借鉴其新的理论工具和分析方法，促进自身学科体系的不断完善与发展。如最近10年来，应用新增长理论分析可持续发展的途径，新贸易理论解释环境对产品国际竞争力的影响，博弈论分析全球环境问题中的合作与斗争，以及应用产业组织理论对不完全竞争市场中的环境政策工具的有效性问题研究等方面都取得了很大的进展。另一方面，正如Deacon.T.R等（1998）9位美国环境经济学界的著名专家在总结过去几十年来环境经济学的演变与发展趋势时所强调的，随着环境管理和各国可持续发展战略的制定和实施，现实需求中的政策问题将为环境经济学的不断发展提供持久的推动力，使环境经济学的研究内容随着现实经济的发展而不断丰富。

关于中国生态环境领域议题，以下为发表在“Journal of Environmental Economics and Management”期刊上的35篇文章。

Auffhammer, M. and R. T. Carson (2008). "Forecasting the path of China's CO2 emissions using province-level information." Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 55(3): 229-247.

Our results suggest that the anticipated path of China's carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions has dramatically increased over the last five years. The magnitude of the projected increase in Chinese emissions out to 2010 is several times larger than reductions embodied in the Kyoto Protocol. Our estimates are based on a unique provincial-level panel data set from the Chinese Environmental Protection Agency. This data set contains considerably more information relevant to the path of likely Chinese greenhouse gas emissions than national level time series currently in use. Model selection criteria clearly reject the popular static environmental Kuznets curve specification in favor of a class of dynamic models with spatial dependence.

Cai, H., et al. (2016). "Polluting thy neighbor: Unintended consequences of China׳s pollution reduction mandates." Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 76: 86-104.

This paper studies how the pollution reduction mandates imposed by China׳s central government in 2001 triggered unanticipated responses from its provinces. We apply the difference-in-differences-in-differences (DDD) method to a unique dataset on industry-level activities in counties along 24 major rivers in China from 1998 through 2008. We find that the most downstream county of a province has up to 20 percent more water-polluting activities than otherwise identical counties since 2001. Moreover, we find that the enforcement of pollution fee collection is more lenient in the most downstream county of a province, and that private firms contribute more to the downstream effect than state-owned enterprises and foreign firms. These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that the provincial governments respond to the pollution reduction mandates by shifting their enforcement efforts away from the most downstream county.

Chen, S., et al. (2016). "Impacts of climate change on agriculture: Evidence from China." Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 76: 105-124.

To move China׳s climate policy forward, improved analyses of climate impacts on economic sectors using rigorous methodology and high quality data are called for. We develop an empirical framework, using fine-scale meteorological data, to estimate the link between corn and soybean yields and weather in China. We find that (i) there are nonlinear and inverted U-shaped relationships between crop yields and weather variables; (ii) global warming has caused an economic loss of about $820 million to China׳s corn and soybean sectors in the past decade; and (iii) corn and soybean yields are projected to decline by 3–12% and 7–19%, respectively, by 2100.

Chen, S., et al. (2018). "Air Pollution, Student Health, and School Absences: Evidence from China." Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 92: 465-497.

Little is known about the impact of air pollution on school children in developing countries. This paper aims to fill this gap by quantifying the causal effects of air pollution on the health status and the school attendance of the Chinese students. We relate the arguably exogenous daily variation in air pollution-instrumented by the occurrence of temperature inversion-with student illnesses and absences from more than 3000 schools in Guangzhou City. We find a sizable deleterious effect of air pollution on school attendance through the health channel. The impact persists for at least four days and displays a monotonically increasing pattern. Notably, this harmful effect is non-negligible even when pollution levels are below the official standards for air quality in China, suggesting that the current ambient air quality standards in China are not low enough to protect students.

Chen, X. and L. Yang (2019). "Temperature and industrial output: Firm-level evidence from China." Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 95: 257-274.

We pair a firm-level panel of annual industrial output with a fine-scale daily weather data set, to estimate the responses of industrial output to temperature changes in China. We have four primary findings. First, industrial output is nonlinear in temperature changes. With seasonal average temperatures as temperature variables, output responds positively to higher spring temperatures and negatively to elevated summer temperatures. With temperature bins as temperature variables, output increases linearly with temperature up to 21–24°C, and then declines sharply at higher temperatures. Second, lagged temperature changes exert large and significant impacts on current year’s output. Third, higher summer temperatures have larger detrimental effects on output in low-temperature regions than in high-temperature regions, which suggests that adaptation to warming may have been actively undertaken in high-temperature regions in China. Lastly, industrial output in China is projected to decrease by 3–36% by 2080 under the slowest warming scenario (B1) and by 12–46% under the most rapid warming scenario (A2) under the global climate models UKMO-HadCM3 and PCM.

Chen, Y., et al. (2013). "The promise of Beijing: Evaluating the impact of the 2008 Olympic Games on air quality." Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 66(3): 424-443.

To prepare for the 2008 Olympic Games, China adopted a number of radical measures to improve air quality. Using the officially reported air pollution index (API) from 2000 to 2009, we show that these measures improved the API of Beijing during and a little after the Games, but a significant proportion of the effect faded away by October 2009. For comparison, we also analyze an objective and indirect measure of air quality at a high spatial resolution – aerosol optimal depth (AOD), derived using the data from NASA satellites. The AOD analysis confirms the real but temporary improvement in air quality, it also shows a significant correlation between air quality improvement and the timing and location of plant closure and traffic control. These results suggest that it is possible to achieve real environmental improvement via stringent policy interventions, but for how long the effects of these interventions will last will largely depend on the continuation of the interventions.

Chen, Z., et al. (2018). "The consequences of spatially differentiated water pollution regulation in China." Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 88: 468-485.

This paper studies the consequences of China's recent water pollution regulation. We find evidence that the regulation reduces pollution-intensive activity in highly regulated areas. Relative to the locations where regulations are more stringent (downstream cities), locations where regulations are less stringent (upstream cities) attract more water-polluting activity. As polluting activity concentrates upstream, a larger proportion of the river and more poor residents are exposed to high levels of pollution.

Deng, X., et al. (2011). "Pressure cookers or pressure valves: Do roads lead to deforestation in China?" Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 61(1): 79-94.

The effect of roads on forests is ambiguous. Many studies conclude that building and upgrading roads increases pressure on forests but some find that new and better roads may reduce the rate of deforestation. In this paper we use satellite remote sensing images of forest cover in Jiangxi Province, China, to test whether the existence and the size of roads (ranging from expressways to tertiary roads) in 1995 affected the level of forest cover in 2000 or the rate of change between 1995 and 2000. To account for road access for each of our 1km2 (“pixel”) units of forest cover we measure whether or not and what type of roads penetrate the “watershed” in which the pixel lies. These watersheds allow more plausible measures of accessibility than do traditional “crowfly” distance measures that ignore topography. To account for possible confounding we also use 12 additional covariates: geographic and climatic variables (e.g., elevation, slope, rainfall, temperature, soil properties); demographic and economic variables (e.g., local population and GDP per square kilometer); and distance variables (e.g., distance to the nearest provincial capital). Although simple univariate OLS regressions show that forest levels are lower and deforestation rates higher either when there is a road, or when there is a higher quality road, these results are not robust. Controlling for all of the covariates and also using recently developed covariate matching techniques to estimate treatment effects, we find that roads in China’s Jiangxi Province can most safely be described as having no impact on the level of forests and no impact on the rate of deforestation.

Dietzenbacher, E., et al. (2012). "Trade, production fragmentation, and China's carbon dioxide emissions." Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 64(1): 88-101.

An input–output framework is adopted to estimate China's carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions as generated by its exports in 2002. More than one half of China's exports are related to international production fragmentation. These processing exports generate relatively little value added but also relatively little emissions. We argue that existing estimates of the CO2 content of China's exports are significantly biased because production fragmentation has not been taken into account appropriately. Using a unique tripartite input–output table, we are able to distinguish processing exports from normal exports. Our results show that China's emissions as embodied in its exports are overestimated by more than 60% if the distinction between processing exports and normal exports is not made. Another finding is that each Yuan of value added generated by processing exports leads to 34% less CO2 emissions than a Yuan of value added generated by normal exports.

Du, Y. and K. Takeuchi (2019). "Can climate mitigation help the poor? Measuring impacts of the CDM in rural China." Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 95: 178-197.

This study examines whether investment in climate change mitigation contributes to poverty alleviation. We investigate the impacts of the renewable energy-based clean development mechanism (RE-CDM) projects on rural communities in China. The impacts of RE-CDM projects are estimated by combining propensity score matching with the difference-in-differences approach. We found that the biomass-based CDM projects significantly contribute to income improvement and employment generation in rural communities in China. Our estimation results also reveal that wind energy-based CDM projects have the potential to increase income and the share of labor force in the primary industry in rural areas. These results suggest different channels through which renewable energy sources affect income.

Eisenbarth, S. (2017). "Is Chinese trade policy motivated by environmental concerns?" Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 82: 74-103.

This paper analyses whether China's export VAT rebates and export taxes are driven by environmental concerns. Since China struggles to enforce environmental regulation, trade policy can be used as a second-best environmental policy. In a general equilibrium model it is possible to show that the second-best export tax increases in a product's pollution intensity. The empirical analysis investigates whether the export tax equivalent of partial VAT rebates and export taxes are higher for products which are more pollution intensive along several dimensions. The results indicate that the VAT rebate rates are set in a way that discourages exports of water pollution intensive, SO2 intensive and energy intensive products from 2007 on. Moreover, the conservation of natural resources such as minerals, metals, wood products and precious stones seems to be a key determinant of China's export VAT rebate rates. There is little evidence that export taxes are motivated by environmental concerns.

Elliott, R. J. R., et al. (2019). "Estimating the direct and indirect impact of typhoons on plant performance: Evidence from Chinese manufacturers." Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 98: 102252.

We quantify the impact of typhoons on manufacturing plants in China. To this end we construct a panel data set of precisely geo-located plants and a plant-level measure of typhoon damage derived from storm track data and a wind field model. Our econometric results reveal that the impact on plant sales can be considerable, although the effects are relatively short-lived. Annual total costs to Chinese plants from typhoons are estimated to be in the range of US$ 3.2 billion (2017 prices), or about 1 per cent of average turnover. When we examine the channels by which plants react to a storm event we find that there is some buffering through an increase in debt and a reduction in liquidity. In terms of propagating the shock through foreign or domestic channels, our estimates suggest that plants prefer to reduce sales to domestic buyers more than foreign buyers and purchases from foreign rather than domestic suppliers. We also find some evidence of a negative indirect effect on turnover through spillovers from customers and a positive effect through damage to very nearby competitors.

Freeman, R., et al. (2019). "Willingness to pay for clean air in China." Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 94: 188-216.

We use a residential sorting model incorporating migration disutility to recover the implicit value of clean air in China. The model is estimated using China Population Census Data along with PM2.5 satellite data. Our study provides new evidence on the willingness to pay for air quality improvements in developing countries and is the first application of an equilibrium sorting model to the valuation of non-market amenities in China. We employ two instrumental variables based on coal-fired electricity generation and wind direction to address the endogeneity of local air pollution. Results suggest important differences between the residential sorting model and a conventional hedonic model, highlighting the role of moving costs and the discreteness of the choice set. Our sorting results indicate that the economic value of air quality improvement associated with a one-unit decline in PM2.5 concentration is up to $8.83 billion for all Chinese households in 2005.

Fu, S. and Y. Gu (2017). "Highway toll and air pollution: Evidence from Chinese cities." Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 83: 32-49.

Most highways in urban China are tolled to finance their construction. During the eight-day National Day holiday in 2012, highway tolls were waived nationwide for passenger vehicles. We use this to identify the effects of highway tolls on air pollution. Using daily pollution and weather data for 98 Chinese cities in 2011 and 2012 and employing both a regression discontinuity design and differences-in-differences method with the 2011 National Day holiday as a control, we find that eliminating tolls increases pollution by 20% and decreases visibility by one kilometer. We also estimate that the toll elasticity of air pollution is −0.15. These findings complement the scant literature on the environmental impact of road pricing.

Ghanem, D. and J. Zhang (2014). "‘Effortless Perfection:’ Do Chinese cities manipulate air pollution data?" Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 68(2): 203-225.

This paper uses unique data on daily air pollution concentrations over the period 2001–2010 to test for manipulation in self-reported data by Chinese cities. First, we employ a discontinuity test to detect evidence consistent with data manipulation. Then, we propose a panel matching approach to identify the conditions under which irregularities may occur. We find that about 50% of cities reported dubious PM10 pollution levels that led to a discontinuity at the cut-off. Suspicious data reporting tends to occur on days when the anomaly is least detectable. Our findings indicate that the official daily air pollution data are not well behaved, which provides suggestive evidence of manipulation.

He, G., et al. (2016). "The effect of air pollution on mortality in China: Evidence from the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games." Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 79: 18-39.

By exploiting exogenous variations in air quality during the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, we estimate the effect of air pollution on mortality in China. We find that a 10 percent decrease in PM10 concentrations reduces the monthly standardized all-cause mortality rate by 8 percent. Men and women are equally susceptible to air pollution risks. The age groups for which the air pollution effects are greatest are children under 10 years old and the elderly.

Hering, L. and S. Poncet (2014). "Environmental policy and exports: Evidence from Chinese cities." Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 68(2): 296-318.

We study environmental regulation and its role for trade in China. Specifically, we assess the effectiveness of an environmental policy in China that introduced stricter regulations on sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions in targeted cities. To identify the causal effect of this policy on exports, we use sectoral export data for a panel of Chinese cities and exploit variations in exports between cities and sectors, over time, and, in a second step, between firm types. We find a relative fall in sectoral exports in targeted cities after the implementation of the policy, which is sharper the more polluting the industry. Further, we find that the observed effect is mainly driven by privately owned firms, whereas exports of state-owned firms seem to be unaffected by the new policy. This finding is consistent with the preferential political treatment of state-owned firms in China.

Heyes, A. and M. Zhu (2019). "Air pollution as a cause of sleeplessness: Social media evidence from a panel of Chinese cities." Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 98: 102247.

We provide first evidence of a link from daily air pollution exposure to sleep loss in a panel of Chinese cities. We develop a social media-based, city-level metric for sleeplessness, and bolster causal claims by instrumenting for pollution with plausibly exogenous variations in wind patterns. Estimates of effect sizes are substantial and robust. In our preferred specification a one standard deviation increase in AQI causes an 11.6% increase in sleeplessness, and for PM2.5 is 12.8%. The results sustain qualitatively under OLS estimation but are attenuated. The analysis provides a previously unaccounted for benefit of more stringent air quality regulation. It also offers a candidate mechanism in support of recent research that links daily air quality to diminished workplace productivity, cognitive performance, school absence, traffic accidents, and other detrimental outcomes.

Hu, Z. and T. Li (2019). "Too hot to handle: The effects of high temperatures during pregnancy on adult welfare outcomes." Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 94: 236-253.

This paper studies the long-term effects of high temperatures during pregnancy on later-life outcomes for Chinese adults. Adults experienced one additional high-temperature day during in utero period, on average, attain 0.02 fewer years of schooling, increase the risk of illiteracy by 0.18%, achieve lower standardized word-test score by 0.48%, and are shorter by 0.02 cm. The impacts are greater in the first and second trimesters. Additionally, we find that income effects represent one important channel to explain the adverse effects of hot weather. Back-of-the-envelope predictions suggest that by the end of the 21st century, a 0.14–0.54 reduction in years of education and a 0.21–0.84 cm reduction in height is likely to result from climate change, ceteris paribus.

Huang, Q., et al. (2017). "Do water saving technologies save water? Empirical evidence from North China." Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 82: 1-16.

This paper describes the extent of water saving technologies usage and evaluates their impacts on water use, water productivity, total irrigated sown area and crop mix in North China. A set of panel data collected at the househol.d and plot levels is used in empirical analysis. Water saving technologies are categorized into traditional technologies, household-based technologies and community-based technologies. By 2007, traditional technologies and household-based technologies are used in almost all sample villages. However, the shares of sown area on which water saving technologies are used are still fairly low. Econometric analysis using plot level fixed effects show that using water saving technologies can reduce crop water use and improve the productivity of water. The positive effects are generated mainly through the use of household-based or community-based technologies. The use of water saving technologies does not have statistically significant impacts on total irrigated sown area and crop mix.

Lai, W. (2017). "Pesticide use and health outcomes: Evidence from agricultural water pollution in China." Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 86: 93-120.

By linking provincial pesticide usage reports from several Chinese statistical yearbooks (1998-2011) with the Chinese Longitudinal Healthy Longevity Survey (1998-2011), this study provides new evidence that pesticides adversely affect health outcomes via drinking water exposure. We follow a difference-in-difference-in-differences framework to compare health outcomes between people who drink surface water and ground water in regions with different intensities of rice pesticide use before and after 2004, when China shifted from taxing agriculture to subsidizing agricultural programs. The results indicate that a 10% increase in rice pesticide use unfavorably alters a key medical disability index (Activities of Daily Living or ADL) by 1% for rural residents 65 and older. This is equivalent to 2.13 and 0.64 million dollars in medical and family care costs, respectively. Further, we provide suggestive evidence of an intergenerational transfer of caring burden by showing pesticide use reduces out-migration of the offspring in affected households. The results are robust to a variety of robustness checks and falsification tests.

Li, S., et al. (2019). "Does subway expansion improve air quality?" Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 96: 213-235.

Major cities in China and many other fast-growing economies are expanding their subway systems in order to address worsening air pollution and traffic congestion. This paper quantifies the impact of subway expansion on air quality by leveraging fine-scale air quality data and the rapid build-out of 14 new subway lines and 252 stations in Beijing from 2008 to 2016. Our main empirical framework examines how the density of the subway network affects air quality across different locations in the city during this period. To address the potential endogenous location of subway stations, we construct an instrument based on historical subway planning, long before air pollution and traffic congestion were of concern. Our analysis shows that an increase in subway density by one standard deviation improves air quality by two percent and the result is robust to a variety of alternative specifications including the distance-based difference-in-differences method. The total discounted health benefit during a 20-year period from reduced mortality and morbidity as a result of 14 new subway lines amounts to $1.0–3.1 billion, or only 1.4–4.4 percent of the total construction and operating cost.

Liu, H. and A. Salvo (2018). "Severe air pollution and child absences when schools and parents respond." Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 92: 300-330.

We examine how absences respond to particle pollution in a multi-year individual panel comprising 6500 children enrolled at international schools situated in a major economic hub in north China. These schools (and their parents) have been willing and able to respond to the dire state of air quality, by implementing defensive procedures (thresholds for outdoor play) and capital (air-tight windows and central air-conditioned filtration systems). Even in this setting, we find substantial heterogeneity in the response to ambient PM2.5. Pollution sensitivity is stronger among US/Canadian/European than Chinese, children who miss school the most, and a minority of children who depart within one year of arrival, but overall is modest compared to estimates for the US. This suggests that to some extent the school response can substitute, through defensive behavior, for the absence response. We offer a benchmark for school administrators in polluted middle-income countries, yet caution that more research is needed on the long-term implications of PM2.5 exposure.

Liu, M., et al. (2017). "Does environmental regulation affect labor demand in China? Evidence from the textile printing and dyeing industry." Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 86: 277-294.

Developing countries, including China, are just beginning to figure out how to balance economic development with the desire to address numerous severe environmental problems. In this paper, we use two enterprise-level data sets – China's Environmental Statistics Database and China's Industrial Enterprise Database – to estimate the impact of a more stringent wastewater discharge standard imposed on all the textile printing and dyeing enterprises in the Lake Tai, Jiangsu region, on labor demand. We find that enterprises which face this new more stringent standard decreased labor demand by approximately 7%. Furthermore, we find that the new standard had heterogeneous impacts on different types of enterprises. For example, our results indicate that the more stringent discharge standard reduced employment in domestically-owned private enterprises by 7.4%, but had little or no impact on state-owned or foreign-owned enterprises.

Salant, S. W. and X. Yu (2016). "Forest loss, monetary compensation, and delayed re-planting: The effects of unpredictable land tenure in China." Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 78: 49-66.

Over the past 65 years, forest tenure in China has oscillated unpredictably between private and village property regimes. This policy-induced uncertainty has distorted the harvesting decisions of individuals granted rights to grow trees and has lowered the value of China׳s forest output. We provide an analytical framework for assessing these effects quantitatively. Understanding the consequences of this policy-induced uncertainty is particularly important since China is currently engaged in an ambitious plan to increase its domestic supply of timber. To conduct this analysis, we extend the literature on forestry economics when there is a risk of loss due to forest fire or pests. We (1) take account of the possibility that replanting can only resume after an interval of uncertain length (with immediate replanting as a special Case); (2) investigate the effects of compensation for such losses based only on the net value of the stand of trees at the time of the loss; and (3) compare it to compensation that would leave the wealth and rotation decisions of the farmer unaffected by the presence of uncertainty.

Shi, X. and Z. Xu (2018). "Environmental regulation and firm exports: Evidence from the eleventh Five-Year Plan in China." Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 89: 187-200.

Combining time variations, cross-province variations in policy intensity, and variations in pollution intensity across industries, we estimate the impact of environmental regulation on firm exports. We find that in more pollution-intensive industries, stricter environmental regulation reduces both the probability that a firm will export and the volume of exports. Heterogeneous tests show that the impact is smaller for SOE firms and for firms located in the central and western part of China. We also find that the reduced probability that a firm will export is driven by a decline in non-exporters entering the export market.

Tan, J., et al. (2019). "Market equilibrium and welfare effects of a fuel tax in China: The impact of consumers' response through driving patterns." Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 93: 20-43.

We investigate the market equilibrium and welfare effects of a fuel tax in China relative to an alternative policy instrument that rations the number of new automobile sales through auctioned quotas. Unlike those of previous studies, our modeling approach incorporates both household car purchase and utilization decisions, the latter of which have been ignored in previous studies on China's fuel tax. Ignoring this margin of choice will underestimate the fuel tax's ability to mitigate externalities. Using detailed household-level panel data and a fixed effects econometric specification, we estimate the fuel price elasticity of vehicle miles traveled is −0.59 on average. The results of the counterfactual analysis suggest that a 51% increase in tax-inclusive gasoline prices will reduce car sales by 24.9% but increase social welfare to a degree that depends on vehicles' lifetime. We find that compared to auctioned quotas, the fuel tax results in greater car sales but higher social welfare.

Wang, C., et al. (2018). "Environmental regulation, emissions and productivity: Evidence from Chinese COD-emitting manufacturers." Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 92: 54-73.

In recent years, China's environmental regulation efforts have mainly focused on severely polluted “key regions.” The central government has designated the “three rivers and three lakes basins” (3Rs3Ls) as key regions for water pollution control and has imposed a variety of regulations to improve water quality in those basins. This paper evaluates the effects of the water quality regulations on firms' emissions of chemical oxygen demand (COD) and productivity in the 3Rs3Ls basins. We find that although the water quality regulations forced many small, heavily-polluting firms to shut down, they had no statistically significant effects on surviving firms' productivity because they were ineffective in reducing their COD emissions. A policy that forces the surviving firms to reduce their emissions would reduce their output values and productivity, at least in the short run. However, the effect is likely to be small. Specifically, a 10% reduction in total COD emissions from the industrial sectors would require only a 0.1% reduction in output values under the current production technologies. These findings are robust to alternative specifications and sampling strategies.

Wang, H. and D. Wheeler (2005). "Financial incentives and endogenous enforcement in China's pollution levy system." Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 49(1): 174-196.

Using data from 3000 Chinese factories, we estimate an econometric model of endogenous enforcement in which factories’ levy rates and emissions are jointly determined by the interaction of local and national enforcement factors, abatement costs and regulator–manager negotiations that are sensitive to plant characteristics. Our results demonstrate the significant deterrent impact of a system that combines progressive financial penalties and self-reporting with few options for contesting regulatory decisions, despite the prevalence of state enterprises and developing-country conditions in China. Despite central pressure for uniformity in enforcement, we find great regional diversity that reflects local conditions. We also find that pollution control through financial incentives has a much greater impact on production processes than on end-of-pipe abatement.

Yu, X., et al. (2019). "Temperature effects on mortality and household adaptation: Evidence from China." Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 96: 195-212.

This paper examines the effects of extreme temperatures on mortality rates, using random year-to-year variation in temperature based on county-level panel data from China. The analysis finds a robust, U-shaped relationship between temperature and mortality rates, indicating that extremely cold or hot temperatures lead to excess deaths. The heat-related (cold-related) effect is 3.5 times (3.2 times) as large as previous findings that used U.S. data, and it is especially large for the elderly population, mainly due to excess deaths caused by cardiovascular diseases. Applying these results to climate change predictions from Hadley Centre Global Environmental Model shows that by 2061–2080 the annual mortality rate is likely to increase by 14.2% if global greenhouse gas emissions continue to rise throughout the 21st century, the estimated health cost of which is around 0.98 trillion Chinese Yuan per year. The paper also explores households’ adaptation behaviors to extreme temperatures. It finds that although urban households adaptively increase energy consumption when they are exposed to cold temperatures and purchase more air conditioners on hot and cold days, rural households are unresponsive to temperature fluctuations. This finding implies that rural people may be more resource constrained and suffer more when extreme temperatures occur.

Zhang, J. and Q. Mu (2018). "Air pollution and defensive expenditures: Evidence from particulate-filtering facemasks." Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 92: 517-536.

Individuals take preventive measures to avoid costly air pollution exposure. This paper provides new empirical evidence of pollution avoidance that Chinese urban residents purchase particulate-filtering facemasks to protect against ambient air pollution. The analysis is conducted with detailed and comprehensive data available on daily facemask purchases and air quality that became available only very recently. We find that this transitory air pollution avoidance behavior exhibits dynamics and nonlinearities, with significant increases of facemask purchases during extreme pollution episodes. The daily model shows that a 100-point increase in Air Quality Index (AQI) increases the consumption of all masks by 54.5 percent and anti-PM2.5 masks by 70.6 percent. The estimates from the aggregated model with flexible pollution levels are used to simulate the benefit of air quality improvement. If 10 percent of heavy pollution days (AQI ≥201) were eliminated, the total savings on facemasks alone would be approximately 187 million USD in China. This result suggests that reducing the occurrence of “airpocalypse” events represents a signifi1cant opportunity to improve social welfare. Nevertheless, our estimates are likely only a small part of the benefit of clean air because facemasks can only partially reduce the negative health effects of air pollution and the costs of other avoidance behaviors are not included.

Zhang, P., et al. (2018). "Temperature effects on productivity and factor reallocation: Evidence from a half million chinese manufacturing plants." Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 88: 1-17.

This paper uses detailed production data from a half million Chinese manufacturing plants over 1998–2007 to estimate the effects of temperature on firm-level total factor productivity (TFP), factor inputs, and output. We detect an inverted U-shaped relationship between temperature and TFP and show that it primarily drives the temperature-output effect. Both labor- and capital- intensive firms exhibit sensitivity to high temperatures. By mid 21st century, if no additional adaptation were to occur, we project that climate change will reduce Chinese manufacturing output annually by 12%, equivalent to a loss of $39.5 billion in 2007 dollars. This implies substantial local and global economic consequences as the Chinese manufacturing sector produces 32% of national GDP and supplies 12% of global exports.

Zhang, P., et al. (2017). "Economic impacts of climate change on agriculture: The importance of additional climatic variables other than temperature and precipitation." Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 83: 8-31.

Climate change shifts the distributions of a set of climatic variables, including temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind speed, sunshine duration, and evaporation. This paper explores the importance of those additional climatic variables other than temperature and precipitation. Using the county-level agricultural data from 1980 to 2010 in China, we find that those additional climatic variables, especially humidity and wind speed, are critical for crop growth. Therefore, omitting those variables is likely to bias the predicted impacts of climate change on crop yields. In particular, omitting humidity tends to overpredict the cost of climate change on crop yields, while ignoring wind speed is likely to underpredict the effect. Our preferred specification indicates that climate change is likely to decrease the yields of rice, wheat, and corn in China by 36.25%, 18.26%, and 45.10%, respectively, by the end of this century.

Zhang, Q., et al. (2019). "The real effect of legal institutions: Environmental courts and firm environmental protection expenditure." Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 98: 102254.

This paper evaluates the real effects of environmental justice reform on environmental governance at the firm level. Using the establishment of environmental courts in China as a quasi-natural experiment, our difference-in-differences estimation shows that: (1) environmental courts significantly enhance environmental investment by firms, and this relationship is robust to different specifications and alternative measures; (2) three possible channels are the improved levels of justice and enforcement of environmental protection, and the mitigation of local government intervention; (3) our findings are particularly pronounced in subsamples with severe local protectionism, state-owned enterprises (SOEs), and non-SOEs with political connections; (4) at the city-level, environmental courts significantly increase air quality and promote cities to cross the inflection point of the environmental Kuznets curve earlier. Overall, this paper reveals the micro-mechanisms behind the real effects of environmental justice on firm environmental investment, thus providing timely implications for regulators concerned with environmental protection.

Zhang, X., et al. (2017). "Happiness in the air: How does a dirty sky affect mental health and subjective well-being?" Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 85: 81-94.

Previous studies evaluating the welfare cost of air pollution have not paid much attention to its potential effect on mental health and subjective well-being (SWB). This paper attempts to fill the gap by investigating the impact of air pollution on several key dimensions, including mental health status, depressive symptoms, moment-to-moment happiness, and evaluative happiness. We match a nationwide longitudinal survey in China with local air quality and rich weather conditions according to the exact time and place of survey. By making use of variations in exposure to air pollution for the same individuals over time, we show that air pollution reduces hedonic happiness and increases the rate of depressive symptoms, while life satisfaction has little to do with the immediate air quality. Our results shed light on air pollution as an important contributor to the Easterlin paradox that economic growth may not bring more happiness.

2.生态经济学

从经济学角度研究生态系统和经济系统所构成的复合系统的结构、功能、行为及其规律性的学科。是生态学和经济学交叉形成的一门新兴学科。主要研究内容有：生态—经济系统的结构、功能和目标; 经济平衡与生态平衡之间的关系及其内在规律; 经济的再生产与自然的再生产之间的关系和规律; 人类在生态—经济系统中的各种经济活动同时带来的经济效益和生态效益的相互关系; 人口、资源、能源、生态环境、城乡建设等问题之间的内在联系;防止环境污染，恢复生态平衡的投资来源及效果评价等等。

经济学家Robert Costanz(1978)认为，生态经济学是一门在更广范围内讨论生态系统和经济系统二者之间关系的学科，主要强调人们的社会经济活动与其带来的资源和环境变化之间的相互关系，强调经济学和生态学的相互渗透、相互结合。国内不少学者也对生态经济学进行了定义。王松霈(1992)提出，生态经济的研究主体生态经济系统是由生态系统和经济系统相互作用、相互交织、相互渗透而形成的具有一定结构和功能的复合系统。王东杰等(1999)认为．生态经济学是研究生态经济系统中生态系统与经济系统之间关系及其规律的科学。季昆森(2001)认为，生态经济学是从经济学角度，研究由社会经济系统和自然生态系统复合而成的生态经济社会系统运动规律的一门科学。此外，张明军等(2006)认为，生态经济学应包括三个方面的内容，即保证经济增长和生态环境的可持续性；基于复杂系统的角度研究生态经济问题；实现经济系统和生态系统协调发展的最理想模式。

关于中国生态环境领域议题，以下为发表在“Ecological Economics”期刊上的35篇文章。

Alcock, R. (2019). "The New Rural Reconstruction Movement: A Chinese degrowth style movement?" Ecological Economics 161: 261-269.

This paper investigates a grassroots Chinese movement called the New Rural Reconstruction Movement (NRRM). Drawing on field visits, surveys, interviews and social media posts regarding a NRRM project and relevant literature I link the NRRM to the degrowth movement. This is likely the first research analysing a Chinese grass-roots movement from a degrowth theoretical perspective. This link is designed to bring greater awareness of the NRRM to western environmentalists and greater awareness of degrowth to Chinese scholars, in the expectation that the two movements will find it beneficial to engage in collaborative research. This paper demonstrates similar progressive environmental based arguments are being debated in places with different geographical and socio-political contexts. It suggests there is the possibility that the NRRM and degrowth could work together to help achieve shared goals.

Bennett, M. T., et al. (2018). "Hungry Birds and Angry Farmers: Using Choice Experiments to Assess “Eco-compensation” for Coastal Wetlands Protection in China." Ecological Economics 154: 71-87.

The JYNNR – a Ramsar Site, Biosphere Reserve and important wintering ground for 15–18% of the world's Red Crowned Cranes – faces major pressure from regional development. This paper uses choice experiments to assess farmer preferences for an “eco-compensation” program targeting pesticide use by rural communities in and near the Jiangsu-Yancheng Coastal Wetlands Rare Birds National Nature Reserve (JYNNR). “Eco-compensation” is a China-specific term encompassing many incentive-based environmental management approaches. To identify options to reconcile rural welfare improvement with conservation, data was collected from 311 rural households in and near the JYNNR assessing perceptions of the JYNNR, wetland birds, use and impact of pesticides, and preferences for contracts to mitigate pesticide impacts. Results suggest that conflict with the JYNNR is growing, and that pesticide management could be an effective entry-point for engagement. The analysis finds several options for cost-effective contracts: granting rights to leave the program without penalty and increasing share of household land enrolled significantly reduce willingness-to-accept-payment (WTA), while longer contracts and larger reductions in pesticide use increase WTA, which interact meaningfully with farmer characteristics. Providing communities with training and technical support on proper pesticide use could, under specific contract structures, be sufficient to induce 100% enrollment without subsidies.

Duan, H., et al. (2019). "Integrated benefit-cost analysis of China's optimal adaptation and targeted mitigation." Ecological Economics 160: 76-86.

In this work, we develop a regional integrated assessment framework by incorporating both adaptation and mitigation mechanisms to conduct benefit-cost analysis of China's optimal adaptation and portray the relative adaptation cost curve. In particular, we explore the influence of induced optimal mitigation, given the 2-degree warming-increase target, on the effectiveness of adaptation. Although adaptation alone may not be able to tackle all the risks of climate change, it remains a benefit-cost effective option. Our results show that China's optimal adaptation strategy can avoid, on average, 28% of climate damage over the entire simulation horizon. With respect to the reduction of adverse climate effects, the effect of a policy mix of both adaptation and mitigation does not appear to be “1 + 1 ≥ 2”, despite the combination strategy is still the better option compared to adaptation or mitigation alone. Robustness analysis reveals that the choice of time scales is important for policy effectiveness assessment, and the discount rate tells most of the story. Specifically, the lower the discount level, the higher the policy effectiveness; and the effectiveness of targeted policy would be significantly reinforced if a longer time scale is considered, given the same discount rate.

Duan, Y. and X. Jiang (2017). "Temporal Change of China's Pollution Terms of Trade and its Determinants." Ecological Economics 132: 31-44.

Based on the World Input–Output Database (WIOD), this study employed a revised pollution terms of trade (PTT) indicator to investigate the temporal change of China's environmental cost relative to its economic gains from international trade from 1995 to 2009. The results show that China has PTT larger than 1, indicating that China emits more emissions to obtain each unit of value-added from exports than its trade partners. Over the period, China's PTT first decreased from 1995 to 2001 and then increased from 2001 to 2009. The further decompositions show that improving technology is the leading driving force to decrease PTT, while the change in global trade pattern is the leading force increasing PTT, especially after 2001. We further decomposed the temporal change of China's PTT by income group of the trading partners. The results show that the change in the global trade pattern is the crucial driving force behind the different changes of PTT by income group.

Geng, Y., et al. (2017). "China-USA Trade: Indicators for Equitable and Environmentally Balanced Resource Exchange." Ecological Economics 132: 245-254.

Trade needs to be evaluated by more comprehensive indicators that complement market-based economic value. The Emergy Accounting (EMA) method proved to be a valuable tool to help address trade complexity by means of environmental quality-oriented indicators. EMA is used in this paper to evaluate the environmental and resource flows involved in China-United States (USA) trade in the years 1993, 2000 and 2008. Results show that China emergy exports (i.e. exports of raw and less processed resources) exceed the imports from USA. Although the money received by China from exports is higher than the money paid for imports, the real imbalance relies in the huge amount of resources that outflow from China, hardly compensated by the value of imports in terms of support to Chinese economy. The conclusion is that trade accounting methods should include holistic valuations beyond the financial costs of traded goods. Policy implications of these results are discussed.

Hu, Y., et al. (2019). "Impacts of the Grassland Ecological Compensation Policy on Household Livestock Production in China: An Empirical Study in Inner Mongolia." Ecological Economics 161: 248-256.

Grassland Ecological Compensation Policy (GECP) is a large-scale program in which China has invested since 2011 to alleviate grassland degradation and increase herders' income. Although the amount invested in the program has increased each year, little research has been conducted to evaluate the impacts of the program; as such, this study examines such impacts on livestock production, grazing intensity, and structure using panel data from a herders' field survey conducted in 2015 in Inner Mongolia, China. Results from the econometric models show that the forage-livestock balance, which is one sub-policy of the GECP, had incentivized large farms to reduce their total number of sheep, but the implementation of the GECP could not greatly influence the reduction in the number of cattle present on any farm size. This study also reveals that herders made their livestock production and grazing decisions in response to market prices and that herder households that also had off-farm jobs raised fewer livestock and grazed lighter. Several policy implications are discussed in this paper.

Li, H.-l., et al. (2019). "Environmental regulations, environmental governance efficiency and the green transformation of China's iron and steel enterprises." Ecological Economics 165: 106397.

Based on micro-level enterprise panel data from 2005 to 2014, a slack-based global data envelopment analysis (DEA) model and a global Malmquist-Luenberger index model are used to calculate the environmental governance efficiency (EGE) of China's iron and steel enterprises (ISEs). Then, the different effects of two types of environmental regulation on EGE of China's ISEs are analysed. The results show that the overall level of EGE for China's ISEs has remained low over the past 10 years. The total factor environmental governance efficiency (TFEGE) presents a decreasing trend from 2005 to 2014, and the decline in TFEGE is mainly attributed to the technical progress change index (GTPCH). Moreover, the bootstrap DEA method is used for bias correction, and the correction efficiency values are all within the confidence interval, improving the accuracy of EGE evaluation. The regression analysis results show that different types of environmental regulations exert heterogeneous effects on TFEGE. The relationship between market incentive environmental regulation and TFEGE has an inverted U-shaped, implying that although market incentive environmental regulation may improve the TFEGE in the short term, continuously increasing this intensity would inhibit it. However, command control environmental regulation and TFEGE have a positive but not significant relationship.

Li, J., et al. (2019). "The Impact of Social Awareness and Lifestyles on Household Carbon Emissions in China." Ecological Economics 160: 145-155.

Household carbon emissions account for a significant proportion of the national total emissions. Using a unique nation-wide survey data, this paper investigates the impact of different subjective measures of social awareness on household carbon emissions in China. Subjective variables are found to have significant impacts on household carbon emissions. Feeling secure, compliance with rules, and happiness have negative and significant effects on household carbon emissions, whereas the impact of interest in social issues is positive, which indicates the existence of a gap between awareness and behavior. The impacts of consumer lifestyles on the relationship between awareness and household emissions are also explored and are found to play a significant role in the relationship between awareness and emissions. People with a frugal lifestyle not only associate with lower emissions but also reinforce the role of social awareness. Furthermore, substantial differences are found across rural/urban areas and regional and income groups in China. The government should further promote a green lifestyle and give households more incentives to engage in green consumption behavior.

Lin, Y., et al. (2020). "Estimating inter-regional payments for ecosystem services: Taking China’s Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region as an example." Ecological Economics 168: 106514.

The inter-regional payments for ecosystem services (PES) is an important policy to promote regional ecological and environmental cooperation. However, the existing inter-regional PES standard in China may underestimate the value of ecosystem services and omit the value of transferred pollutants due to inter-regional trade. A reasonable framework of inter-regional PES standards is necessary for the policymakers, especially in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei (BTH) region with the most serious environmental problem in China. This paper employed the method of environmental impact evaluation and multi-regional input-output model (MRIO) to build a framework of inter-regional PES estimation, which both contained the regional spillover value of ecosystem services and the regional transfer value of pollutants. Finally, we estimate the amount of inter-regional payment for ecosystem services within BTH region. The results indicated that the PES standards within BTH region were 13.8 billion yuan and 19.2 billion yuan from Beijing, Tianjin to Hebei province in 2012, which accounted for 0.77 % and 1.49 % of their GDP in 2012. These PES standards are effective for regional ecological and environmental cooperation within BTH region and a multi-dimensional marketization mechanism should be implemented to reinforce inter-regional payment for ecosystem services, which may pave the way for other regions or countries.

Liu, L.-J., et al. (2020). "Sweet spots are in the food system: Structural adjustments to co-control regional pollutants and national GHG emissions in China." Ecological Economics 171: 106590.

The Chinese government aims to mitigate climate change while also reducing local air pollution; this requires co-control of greenhouse gases and pollutants. Here, we develop a method combining an elasticity analysis and a multi-regional input–output model, to measure changes in the emissions of greenhouse gases and pollutants and corresponding socio-economic costs caused by the adjustments in intermediate input, inter-regional trade, and final demand transactions for 30 provinces in China. A filter framework is proposed to identify the key structural transactions that can significantly co-control both emission types with small socio-economic impacts. The results show that 13 effective co-control spots can simultaneously reduce greenhouse gases and pollutants. Among these, eight co-controls are associated with low economic costs, which we refer to as ‘sweet spots’. Sweet spots cover agricultural inputs in the food and tobacco sectors of Inner Mongolia, Sichuan, Liaoning, and Hubei; self-inputs in the agriculture of Henan; self-inputs in the food and tobacco sector of Shandong; fixed capital formation of agriculture in Hebei; and urban household consumption of agricultural products in Guangdong. This finding is important, as climate measures mostly side-line the agricultural sector so far, both in China and in other parts of the world.

Liu, Q. and Q. Wang (2015). "Reexamine SO2 emissions embodied in China's exports using multiregional input–output analysis." Ecological Economics 113: 39-50.

Previous studies on embodied emission in China's exports focus on the national aggregate analysis while pay little attention to the interregional emission transfer driven by exports. We used multiregional input–output model of 30 provinces to reexamine the embodied emissions and to capture the interregional linkage in it. Results in 2002–2007 show that SO2 embodied in exports contributes 15.17–22.08% of the total domestic SO2 emissions, and 74.40–78.14% of the embodiment is in exports from the eastern provinces, where over 90% of China's exports occur. However, only about 70% of the embodied emission in eastern China's exports is discharged in the east; an increasing portion (24% to 34%) is released in the central and western provinces as a result of interregional production linkage. Moreover, the interregional connection becomes closer during the 2002–2007 period, which increases the scale and intensity of embodied emission in China's export given large gaps in emission intensity among regions. Further analysis on Guangdong, China's largest export province, shows that the SO2 emissions per unit of output induced by Guangdong's exports are larger than that induced by the province's own exports for most provinces, especially the central and western provinces which are restricted in exports and indirectly export by supporting Guangdong's exports via interregional economic linkage. The results yield important implications for China's export and pollution emission control policy.

Liu, T., et al. (2020). "Exploring spillover effects of ecological lands: A spatial multilevel hedonic price model of the housing market in Wuhan, China." Ecological Economics 170: 106568.

This paper attempts to explore the spillover effects of ecological lands, including forest, grassland, wetland, and cultivated land, on housing prices. To this end, we test hypotheses from a spatial multilevel hedonic model in Wuhan, China. We find that forest size and wetland size has a linear positive spillover effect on urban housing prices, and a moderate grassland area and distance from wetland generates positive spillover effect on urban housing prices, while too much or poor grassland area and distance from wetland may not. Also, only cultivated land very proximity to urban residential areas may raise the housing prices, most of the cultivated land in our case may reduce the housing prices. This article contributes to the literature by integrating different ecological lands into the hedonic analysis based on spatial multilevel models and deepens the relationship between the accessibility and visibility of ecological lands and housing prices. This result implies that demand for the forest, grassland, and wetlands can be well reflected in the housing market, while demand for cultivated land is less reflected in the housing market. Our findings urge policymakers to increase the effective supply of ecological lands through urban development planning and maintain the continuous supply of existing ecological lands by implementing market, differential ecological protection mechanisms.

Long, X. and X. Ji (2019). "Economic Growth Quality, Environmental Sustainability, and Social Welfare in China - Provincial Assessment Based on Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI)." Ecological Economics 159: 157-176.

In order to devise scientific and sustainable development strategy, it is vital to assess the quality of economic growth. As a useful complement to traditional economic indicators, GPI's most reputed virtue is its great improvement in evaluating environmental and social costs. In this paper we estimate the GPI for all 31 provinces in mainland China from 1997 to 2016. GPI estimation is highly sensitive to income inequality, climate change damage, and depletion of non-renewables. We address contestable methodological assumptions associated with the three items which have been usually ignored in empirical studies. We use the Atkinson index in place of the Gini index as a measure of income inequality. We avoid the problematic duplicated counting of climate change damage and the unjustified cost escalation factor in depletion of non-renewables. Our results show that: first, GPI per capita has recently declined in some provinces, unveiling a threat to social welfare and sustainability; second, the “relative threshold effect”—the progress of social welfare promotion is slower than the expansion of economic scale—has been found in many provinces; third, resource consumption and environmental pollution, especially water pollution and carbon emissions, would generate substantial welfare losses.

Qiao, Y., et al. (2018). "Certified Organic Agriculture as an Alternative Livelihood Strategy for Small-scale Farmers in China: A Case Study in Wanzai County, Jiangxi Province." Ecological Economics 145: 301-307.

Organic agriculture can sustain rural development and ease poverty. However, whether it could be a viable pathway to improve the livelihoods of small-scale farmers in the context of urbanisation and demographic change has been less studied. To understand this, household surveys were conducted in 2007 and 2014 in Wanzai, Jiangxi Province China, where organic farming started in 2000. The results show that organic farming did contribute to higher farm incomes for small-scale farmers (<1ha land) compared to those practicing conventional agriculture, regardless of whether the profitability is measured on a per land unit or per household basis. The annual farmers household net income increased from 2007 to 2014, however, the farm income of small-scale farmers only makes up a minor part of total household income and its percentage becomes less and less over time. For medium-scale organic farmers (>1ha land), the proportion of income from farming was higher (56% in 2007 and 77% in 2014), leading to average farm incomes of USD16,108 in 2014. Among organic farmers, cooperatives members performed better economically than those not in cooperatives. Organic agriculture can ensure stable and sustainable alternative livelihoods, especially in a situation where available land offers opportunities for scaling up.

Sergi, B., et al. (2019). "Support for Emissions Reductions Based on Immediate and Long-term Pollution Exposure in China." Ecological Economics 158: 26-33.

Reducing power sector emissions in China is a critical step toward mitigating climate change and lowering health damages from air pollution. We conduct a discrete choice survey (N = 1060) among urban residents from 10 Chinese cities, assessing how individuals compare electricity source, cost, and reduction of emissions related to climate change or air pollution. Using observed air quality data, we also evaluate how pollution levels affect respondents' support for different types of emissions reductions. We find that reductions targeting both climate change and human health benefits have stronger support than those which address only one of the two. Furthermore, respondents in cities with the highest annual concentrations of particulate matter are willing to pay 30% more to clean up the air when compared to individuals living in less polluted cities. The analysis suggests that the public values co-optimizing mitigation policy across climate and health objectives, and that making available information on long-term air quality may encourage sustained support for cleaner energy.

Song, C., et al. (2018). "Rural Household Energy Use and Its Determinants in China: How Important Are Influences of Payment for Ecosystem Services vs. Other Factors?" Ecological Economics 145: 148-159.

Fuelwood is an essential environmental good for livelihood in rural China. Heavy reliance on fuelwood is associated with numerous negative externalities. Due to decades of rapid economic growth in China, we hypothesize that the increase in rural household income would reduce reliance on fuelwood. Using data from a survey of 481 households conducted in 2014, we examined the effects of two payments for ecosystem services programs, the Conversion of Cropland to Forest Program (CCFP) and the Ecological Welfare Forest Program (EWFP), on energy use, along with other factors. We found that the CCFP did not significantly affect fuel choice nor the quantity of fuelwood used, but households with more forestland in EWFP were less likely to adopt modern fuels and likely to use more fuelwood. Household per capita annual income was the main factor promoting adoption of modern fuels, while household size was the most important factor determining the quantity of fuelwood used per capita. Overall, the gradually increasing adoption of modern fuels has thus far not resulted in any significant abandonment of fuelwood. Fuelwood remains the dominant fuel across all income groups, suggesting that households in the study area are in the early stages of the energy transition.

Song, J., et al. (2018). "The Agricultural Water Rebound Effect in China." Ecological Economics 146: 497-506.

Although the water productivity of the agricultural sector in China continuously increased over the last twenty years, by improvements in irrigation technology, the total agricultural water use did not decline as expected, mainly due to continuous increases in agricultural output partially derived from technological progress. Thus, agricultural water use in China may experience a rebound effect. This study defines the water rebound effect (WRE) using macro-scale indicators of water use and water productivity, establishes a simplified direct comparison method using the contribution rate of technological progress, and evaluates the magnitude of the macro-scale water rebound effect in the Chinese agricultural sector using provincial panel data from 1997 to 2014. The magnitude of the agricultural WRE in China (1998–2014) is 61.49%. The northern and western regions of China experience a greater WRE than the southern and eastern regions, and the changes in the inter-annual WRE are distinct. These observations indicate that much of the expected water savings from efficiency improvement could be offset by increased water use for increased agricultural production due to technology enhancement. The control of water use growth is effective for reducing the water rebound effect. The study confirmed the existence of the agricultural WRE in China.

Song, Y., et al. (2019). "A Fuzzy Stochastic Model for Carbon Price Prediction Under the Effect of Demand-related Policy in China's Carbon Market." Ecological Economics 157: 253-265.

The establishment of China's carbon market has an obvious policy-oriented feature, and the carbon price is easily affected by demand-related policies within a compliance period. As prior models cannot help with clear simulation of the volatility of carbon price in China, this paper develops a fuzzy stochastic model to predict such price under the effect of demand-related policy. First, we quantify corporate final profit obtained from carbon trading based on different free allowance policies to measure the actual allowance demand in the carbon market. Second, based on such demand, we add the fuzzy number in each parameter of a stochastic differential equation and then develop a fuzzy stochastic model that can help to analyse the effect of demand-related policy on carbon price in the immature carbon market. Third, by analysing the demand-related policy formulated in the second-developing-phase of the Shanghai Environment and Energy Exchange (from Nov. 17 in 2016) through our model, we predict the price trend after each demand-related policy publication. Experimental results reveal the accurate fitting effect of the developed model that can help to estimate the supply-and-demand in the carbon market and evaluate the effectiveness of current carbon trading policy as well. Further, our model can provide a robust theoretical implication for both corporate carbon trading strategies and governmental regulations on carbon demand-related policy.

Sun, C., et al. (2017). "Self-protection investment exacerbates air pollution exposure inequality in urban China." Ecological Economics 131: 468-474.

Urban China's high level of ambient air pollution lowers quality of life and raises mortality risk. China's wealthy can purchase private products such as portable room air filters that offset some of their pollution exposure risk. Using a unique data set of Internet purchases, we document that households invest more in masks and air filter products when ambient pollution levels exceed key alert thresholds. Richer people are more likely to invest in air filters, which are much more expensive and more effective than masks. Our findings have implications for trends in quality of life inequality in urban China.

Tan, X., et al. (2019). "What drives public willingness to participate in the voluntary personal carbon-trading scheme? A case study of Guangzhou Pilot, China." Ecological Economics 165: 106389.

The escalation of risks associated with environmental and climatic aspects has accelerated the introduction of voluntary personal carbon trading (PCT), a policy instrument for promotion and facilitation of low-carbon behavior in the domestic sector. This paper examines participants' motivation in the Guangdong pilot project, which aims to develop the first voluntary PCT scheme (Carbon Generalized System of Preferences, CGSP) in China to reduce the domestic sector's emissions and increase the liquidity of the Guangdong pilot emission trading scheme. The CGSP acceptance model is based on the technology acceptance model and explores the drivers of the public's participation willingness (PW) in the CGSP scheme. Further, the structural equation model has been adopted to explore the influence paths of each driver by using survey data (N = 1190) collected from Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China. The empirical results demonstrated that the strong and direct drivers are associated with the institutional technical environment, perceived usefulness and participation risk. However, other drivers affect PW through the mediation effect of perceived usefulness. Notably, implementation cost had no significant effect on PW.

Wang, L., et al. (2019). "Comprehensive evaluation of environmental footprints of regional crop production: A case study of Chizhou City, China." Ecological Economics 164: 106360.

Thanks to Green Revolution, worldwide crop production was significantly enhanced and hunger substantially reduced. However, China's crop production has been developed at high-resource consumption and high-environmental costs, varying regionally in total intensity and proportion of different inputs. Exploring the driving factors for changes in environmental pressures could be a key approach for manipulating agricultural sustainability at regional scale. This case study examined the agricultural development of a prefecture city, Chizhou Municipality, in lower reach of Yangtze River valley, China, over the period 2004–2015. The driving forces underlying the environmental pressures were explored in terms of carbon and water footprint along with reactive nitrogen release, associated with crop production. Analysis of the decadal trend of these footprint indicators revealed decoupling between crop production growth and environmental pressures. This decoupling, however, did not occur in a uniform manner, the threat of high-material input and high-environmental costs from crop production remains. In general, investment, technology, and urbanization accelerated low-carbon and environmentally friendly crop production, whereas agricultural economic level and population size have had contrasting effects. Thus, for sound development of regional agriculture, substantial investments for and with innovative technology should be promoted to improve crop production in the region administrated under prefecture cities.

Xie, R.-h., et al. (2017). "Different Types of Environmental Regulations and Heterogeneous Influence on “Green” Productivity: Evidence from China." Ecological Economics 132: 104-112.

This paper attempts to examine if the “strong” version of Porter Hypothesis is supported in China by investigating how different regulatory instruments and the relative stringency impact “green” productivity. We use a slacks-based measure (SBM) and Luenberger Productivity Index, accounting for undesirable outputs, to evaluate the industrial “green” productivity growth rates of China's 30 provinces. The estimates imply an unsustainable development model in China with significant regional differences. By employing a panel threshold model and a province-level panel dataset during 2000–2012, empirical results show that both command-and-control and market-based regulation have a non-linear relationship with and can be positively related to “green” productivity but with different constrains on regulation stringency: there are double thresholds with the command-and-control and exists an optimal range of stringency for productivity improvement; while a single threshold has been found with the market-based regulation and its current stringency is reasonable for most of provinces. Moreover, based on China's reality, the productivity effect driven by market-based regulation is much stronger than that of the command-and-control. The mechanism of informal regulation is much more complicated. Consequently, we find evidence to support the “strong” Porter Hypothesis that reasonable stringency of environmental regulations may enhance rather than lower industrial competitiveness.

Xu, X., et al. (2016). "Household carbon inequality in urban China, its sources and determinants." Ecological Economics 128: 77-86.

Designing mitigation policies for households requires knowledge of household carbon distributions. This study surveys the household carbon inequality in urban China and analyzes its sources and determinants using weighted household survey data. Different from existing literatures studying carbon inequality on the international or regional level, we focus on the household aspect and first survey its characteristics by some comparisons. By ascribing household carbon emissions calculated by the Consumer Lifestyle Approach to several consumption categories with the method of Gini coefficient decomposition, we find that residential consumption with high carbon intensity is the most important source of household carbon inequality in urban China. Food consumption and the consumption of educational, cultural and recreational services are the next largest sources because of the consumed quantities or carbon intensity. The application of Shapley decomposition shows the determinants of household carbon inequality in urban China and their contributions, which are household demographic characteristics (59.74%), household employment and income (24.31%), household burdens (8.00%), and household assets and financial plans (7.95%). The policy implications of these results are also discussed.

Yi, M., et al. (2020). "Effects of heterogeneous technological progress on haze pollution: Evidence from China." Ecological Economics 169: 106533.

Technological progress plays an important role in combating haze pollution in the long run. However, existing studies often ignore the inconsistent effects on the reduction of haze brought by different types of technological progress. Considering the potential heterogeneity among technological progress, this paper constructs a theoretical framework to analyse the impact of heterogeneous technological progress on haze pollution, using annual data from 30 provinces and cities in China for the period of 2003 to 2016. A systematic GMM method is applied to empirically test the effects of neutral technological progress and biased technological progress on haze pollution. The results show that first, due to cost-reduction effect and income effect, neutral technological progress and labour-saving technological progress are conducive to haze reduction; while the impact of capital-saving technological progress on haze pollution is insignificant. Second, because of the energy rebound effect, energy-saving technological progress cannot effectively reduce haze pollution. Third, the haze-reduction effects of different types of technological progress show significant regional heterogeneity in China. Last, in terms of the control variables, strengthening environmental regulation is the only factor that can be helpful in haze reduction, others intensify haze pollution.

Yost, A., et al. (2020). "Mechanisms behind concurrent payments for ecosystem services in a Chinese nature reserve." Ecological Economics 169: 106509.

Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) seek to protect important ecosystems and related ecosystem services while increasing (or maintaining) human wellbeing by paying resource users directly to change their land and resource use behavior. To increase understanding of socio-economic aspects of PES, this study collected data from households to identify variables that may influence Chinese villagers’ decisions to enroll land in a PES program, the Grain-to-Green Program (GTGP), in the context of simultaneous participation in another PES, the Forest Ecological Benefit Compensation Fund (FEBC). Previous studies identified a baseline of relevant variables, which we use as control variables. Secondary to this, we explore how hypothetical post-participation land use options might promote or deter GTGP participation. In addition to supporting previous findings regarding the role of control variables, our results generated through regression analysis suggest a negative relationship between GTGP enrollment and FEBC participation. We find that villagers view retiring land from crops to plant ecological trees through GTGP as undesirable under current compensation scenarios. Through exploring latent mechanisms underlying PES enrollment in concurrent PES programs, this research provides new insight about PES effectiveness, as well as bases for policy extension, with lessons for design and implementation of PES in China and globally.

Yuan, L., et al. (2018). "Subjective Well-being and Environmental Quality: The Impact of Air Pollution and Green Coverage in China." Ecological Economics 153: 124-138.

Rapid environmental degradation is a well-publicized issue, particularly in rapidly developing countries. This study examines the impact of air pollution and green coverage on people's subjective well-being (SWB) in China using self-reported life satisfaction (LS) from survey data combined with the city-level air quality index (AQI) and green coverage data. The results show that air pollution and green coverage are significantly negatively and positively correlated with LS, respectively. The total effect of green coverage on life satisfaction constitute of a direct effect of green space itself and indirect effects through improving air pollution and health. The implicit monetary valuations of a 1-unit reduction in the AQI and a 1% increase in green coverage according to the respondent's annual gross individual income are approximately 239–280 USD (1.7%–2.0%) and 420–444 USD (3.0%–3.2%), respectively. The results also indicate that the average benefit from a 1% change in green coverage for people with a poor subjective health evaluation is almost 2 times higher than that for their counterparts.

Zhang, Q., et al. (2019). "Rural household income distribution and inequality in China: Effects of payments for ecosystem services policies and other factors." Ecological Economics 160: 114-127.

In the late 1990s, China initiated the Conversion of Croplands to Forest Program (CCFP) and the Ecological Welfare Forest Program (EWFP) based on the Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) principle. Positive socioeconomic outcomes of the programs are essential for the long-term success of eco-environment conservation. However, there is lack of understanding of their longer-term (over 10 years) impacts on rural livelihoods. In this paper, we examine income distribution and inequality of rural households under CCFP and EWFP in rural Anhui, China after 12 years of program implementation. Results show that CCFP-participating households have higher income inequality than non-participants, while the EWFP does not have a significant effect. Local off-farm work and out-migration with remittances are the two principal income sources and both add to inequality. A regression-based decomposition of inequality shows that the CCFP indirectly alters livelihoods by increasing out-migration with remittances, but it also adds to inequality from shifting livelihoods to non-agricultural activities. Meanwhile, EWFP payments positively affect agricultural incomes and contribute 16% to agricultural income inequality. Finally, human capital, natural capital and physical capital all play important roles in generating income and inequality, but the factors affecting inequality from agricultural and non-agricultural activities are different.

Zhang, X., et al. (2017). "Valuing Air Quality Using Happiness Data: The Case of China." Ecological Economics 137: 29-36.

This paper estimates the monetary value of cutting PM2.5, a dominant source of air pollution in China. By matching hedonic happiness in a nationally representative survey with daily air quality data according to the dates and counties of interviews in China, we are able to estimate the relationship between local concentration of particulate matter and individual happiness. By holding happiness constant, we calculate the tradeoff between the reduction in particulate matter and income, essentially a happiness-based measure of willingness-to-pay for mitigating air pollution. We find that people on average are willing to pay ¥258 ($42, or 1.8% of annual household per capita income) per year per person for a 1% reduction in PM2.5.

Zhang, Z., et al. (2019). "Economic gains and environmental costs from China's exports: Regional inequality and trade heterogeneity." Ecological Economics 164: 106340.

As the world's factory, processing exports comprise a remarkable share of China's total exports. By fully taking the special characteristics of processing trade into account, this paper comprehensively investigates the unbalanced distribution of trade-related economic benefits and environmental costs across different regions in the years of 2007 and 2012. We find a serious regional mismatch between trade-related pollutions and economic gains, with the coastal region gaining more economically but emitting less, whereas the inland regions gain less but emit more. We also conclude that trade-related value added and air pollutions would be overestimated significantly if trade heterogeneity was not correctly captured. Processing exports are cleaner but result in greater regional inequality in terms of trade-related economic gains and environmental costs, although the regional inequality induced by processing exports presented a decreasing trend over the period 2007–2012. The electricity generation sector plays a dominant role in this outcome. Coastal regions should transfer more trade-related economic gains to help sustainable development in inland regions.

Zhang, Z. and K. P. Paudel (2019). "Policy improvements and farmers' willingness to participate: Insights from the new round of China's Sloping Land Conversion Program." Ecological Economics 162: 121-132.

We use face-to-face interview survey data collected in 2017 from farmers located in Xinjiang province, China to identify influencing factors for willingness to adopt the new round of the Sloping Land Conversion Program (SLCP). Results indicate that socio-demographic characteristics and the livelihood endowment of rural households, policy improvements, and external supports influence farmers' willingness to participate in the new round of the SLCP. We also find that it is essential to improve farmers' off-farm skills and forestry management abilities, optimize the compensation scheme of the SLCP, and strengthen the supporting capacity of forestry specialized cooperatives to enhance farmers' enthusiasm for participating in the new round of the SLCP. We discuss the implications of these findings.

Zhao, M., et al. (2018). "Mapping Watershed-Level Ecosystem Service Bundles in the Pearl River Delta, China." Ecological Economics 152: 106-117.

Managing multiple ecosystem services (ES) is a pressing field in sustainability research. ES bundles (ESBs), which closely link ES trade-offs and synergies, provide a comprehensive approach to exploring the relationship between natural ecosystems and human well-being. In this study, we quantified eight ES in terms of provisioning, regulating and cultural services using geographical data and other available information (both ecological and social) in the Pearl River Delta, China. We identified ESBs based on K-means clustering and redundancy analysis. The results showed that spatial patterns of each ES were quite heterogeneous at watershed level. Provisioning services were mainly distributed in watersheds with high proportion of cultivated land and waterbody. Remote forest areas provided high regulating services. Moreover, densely populated urban areas provide high cultural services. Five ESBs were detected ranging from 2941 to 16,249 km2. According to the Pearson correlations and the Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE), we detected the trade-offs between provisioning and cultural services, and between regulating and cultural services, and synergies happened within regulating services. Intensive land-use and management in urban areas contributed to ES trade-offs. These results provide deeper understanding of the relationship between ES and land-use type at watershed level and detailed guidelines for ecosystem management.

Zhen, W., et al. (2018). "Inequality across China's Staple Crops in Energy Consumption and Related GHG Emissions." Ecological Economics 153: 17-30.

It is significant to investigate the inequalities between energy consumption and related greenhouse gas emissions for sustainable crop production in China. We adopt a hybrid economic input-output and life cycle assessment model, in order to examine the crop-specific embodied energy intensity (EEI) and energy consumption related greenhouse gas intensity (ECR-GHGI) of 29 staple crops from 1990 to 2010. A sensitivity analysis is employed to investigate the relationship between ECR-GHGI and the different components of EEI. We further determine, via a structural path analysis, product-specific energy management priorities for each agricultural production input (API). Our findings indicate the following: (1) The EEI and ECR-GHGI of cash crops are greater than those of grain crops. (2) The EEI and ECR-GHGI of most grain crops increased during the sample period, while the EEI and ECR-GHGI of most cash crops decreased. (3) Energy consumption of synthetic fertilizers is the primary driver of ECR-GHGI across the full range of crops. Agricultural machinery and pesticides are also important factors. (4) Potential energy-savings practices in the API production processes should be taken seriously. (5) Different actions should be implemented to reduce energy consumption levels and ECR-GHG emissions in terms of the production processes of different APIs.

Zhu, B., et al. (2015). "Can China achieve its carbon intensity target by 2020 while sustaining economic growth?" Ecological Economics 119: 209-216.

In 2009, the Chinese government announced its carbon intensity target for 2020. Can China achieve this carbon intensity while sustaining economic growth? To address this essential issue, the contributions of this study lie in three aspects. First, we quantitatively capture the relationship between China's economic growth and energy consumption using the cointegration theory, and predict China's energy consumption by 2020 according to different economic growth targets. Second, we forecast China's energy structure in 2020 using compositional data and ARIMA models under different scenarios. Third, we deduce China's CO2 emission and carbon intensity in 2020. Furthermore, we investigate whether (or not) China can realize the carbon intensity target in premise of ensuring economic growth, and evaluate the contribution of the energy structure's adjustment to meeting this target. Finally, we put forward some relevant policy implications for achieving China's carbon intensity target.

Zhu, J. and M. R. Chertow (2017). "Business Strategy Under Institutional Constraints: Evidence From China's Energy Efficiency Regulations." Ecological Economics 135: 10-21.

This paper links theoretical perspectives from energy efficiency economics with those observed from corporate environmental strategy to develop a framework for explaining energy efficiency strategies by firms in response to national policies and local regulations in China. The framework is refined through analytic generalization of 20 cases from four industries and four cities in Jiangsu Province, and reveals two strategies: 1) firms with moderate institutional pressure seek incremental competitiveness by adopting energy-saving technologies, which is reinforced by their informational, organizational, and financing capabilities, and facilitated by voluntary policies and industrial competition; 2) firms with survival risk or development constraints under regulation seek a position favored by local governments by replacing old plant and equipment with larger, more efficient ones and contributing to the local community. The Chinese case studies reveal a strong institutional impact on firms' choice of business strategies and particularly the positioning strategy. The identified business strategies shed additional light on the effectiveness and implications of different policy instruments for energy efficiency.

Zhu, J., et al. (2018). "Technological Change and Energy Efficiency in Large Chinese Firms." Ecological Economics 150: 241-250.

Technological changes will influence the extent to which China can reduce its energy consumption and carbon emissions without hampering economic development. Based on data of 580 firms in the Top-1000 Enterprise Energy Saving Program during 2006 and 2009, we differentiate between technological change embodied in new production capital and disembodied technological change. We find that both types of changes clearly led to energy efficiency. Firms of domestic ownership and higher profit were more prone to making investment with embodied technological changes. Energy efficiency rates associated with embodied technological change were higher among younger firms and those with more intensive use of energy. Energy saving associated with disembodied technological change was higher in firms of state or foreign ownership, larger scale, orientation toward domestic market, and more intensive use of energy. The findings call for the need to carefully consider the effect of different policy instruments in energy saving, and to track long-term energy statistics at the micro-level.

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