Which跳跃指代专项精讲 | 长难句训练营
作者简介：Jackie Zeng，GMAT 760, V40, TOEFL阅读满分，新加坡Quantitative Finance硕士毕业。NativeStudy资深导师，三年教学经验，数千学生好评。教学经验丰富，注重于训练RC的逻辑框架和学生阅读能力的提高。
注意：本文中所有的讲解句子，均出自官方题源的GMAT OG，和GMAT权威学习素材Manhattan GMAT的阅读部分。讲解一律不分析缺乏可信度的其他第三方素材。
文章有点长，可能会没耐心，不如先看一段视频，平复一下心情。
https://v.qq.com/txp/iframe/player.html?vid=n0544rtmw7z&width=500&height=375&auto=0
接着问题1，先送大家一个句子：
The overwhelmingly agrarian nature of economy generated outright opposition to banks, which were seen as monopolistic institutions controlled by an elite group of planters.
这句话什么意思？
1.不知道…
2.农场主垄断经济，反对银行业？
3.农场主反对银行，结果被银行被看作垄断者？
…
大家可能不耐烦了：一句话至于吗，差不多知道意思不就行了？
可是，GMAT素来是“哪里不会考哪里”，问题2：
这是阅读中的一道题，定位点就是上述例句，你选什么？
第一，提炼题干的主干：
Opposition to banks in the South stemmed from the fact that banks …
第二，拆解定位句：
1. the overwhelmingly agrarian nature of economy opposes to banks
2. banks were seen as monopolistic institutions controlled by an elite group of planters
第三，考的就是拆解出来的第2句：
Opposition to banks in the South stemmed from the fact that banks were seen as monopolistic institutions controlled by an elite group of planters.
第四，答案选什么呢？选A：
选项：Opposition to banks inthe South stemmed from the fact that banks did not benefit more than a small minority of the people.
原文：Opposition to banks inthe South stemmed from the fact that banks were seen as monopolistic institutions controlled by an elite group of planters.
如果我再告诉你，阅读遍地都是这种考法，你还会觉得我烦吗？
接下来问题3：which修饰到底是什么？
要解决这个问题，咱们得先来看看：
问题3.1：什么是noun modifier？
简单来说，作为名词的修饰；详细来说，就得看Manhattan了。
总结：Noun Modifier是用来回答who, what, which, where之类问题的名词的修饰成分。
问题3.2：noun modifier和which指代有什么关系呢？
接着问题3.1多读几页Manhattan，会冒出下面这句话：
"Noun modifiers are often introduced by relative pronouns such as the following: Which That Who Whose Whom Where When"
言外之意就是，which其实是一种noun modifier。另外，如果你记得上次讲的comma+Ving，你应该要记得这张图：
关于Comma+V-ing可查看：Comma+V-ing专项精讲 | 长难句训练营。
总结：which指代 = noun modifier，修饰名词。
问题4：which指代如何修饰名词？
其实也就是“就近修饰”还是“跳跃指代”的问题。
4.1 什么是就近修饰？
先看几个例子：
Sue placed CAT on the couch.
The CAT owned by Sue is playful.
cat是名词，而on the couch，owned by Sue就近修饰这个名词cat。
一般来说，noun modifier一般都是就近修饰。
但换个例句：
Crime has recently decreased in our neighborhood, which has led to a rise in property values.
隔壁犯罪案件减少→财产增多了，符合逻辑，好像是对的？
这也是Manhattan的例句，根据书里的说法：which就近修饰our neighborhood，后半句是our neighborhood has led to a rise in property values，句意错了。
如果要改，可以是：
1. The recent decrease in crime in our neighborhood has led to a rise in property values.
2. Crime has recently decreased in our neighborhood, leading to a rise in property values.
总结：which一般就近修饰名词，找到which修饰的内容很重要。
可是，书里的说法是“place noun and its modifier as close together as possible”，是“尽可能靠近”，不是“必须靠近”？
所以，问题4.2：什么是跳跃指代？
讲语法怎么能没例句：
1. I took pictures of my dog, which is only 6-month years old.
2. I took pictures of my dog, which are so adorable that they make everyone smile.
第一个例句就是我们刚刚讨论的“就近修饰”，拆解后半句就是: my dog is only 6-month years old。
但是第二个例句就是现在要谈的跳跃指代，which并没有就近修饰“my dog”，而是修饰“pictures”，拆解开来就是：pictures are so adorable that they make everyone smile。
为什么可以这样？这就要深刻理解“as close together as possible”：
第一，“I took pictures of my dog”，现在要再加一个“picture”的修饰，怎么办？
最没歧义的方式是：I took pictures, which are so adorable…, of my dog；可是，这样写也太愚蠢了吧？
事实上，“of my dog” 和“which are so adorable…” 都是pictures的修饰，总得有一前一后。of my dog放后面太愚蠢了，因此就放前面咯。
第二，即便上句写成：I took pictures of my dog, which are so adorable… 有没有歧义？
单看“which”的确会误以为修饰dog，但“which are”说明修饰的是复数名词，因此不可能修饰单数名词dog，只能修饰pictures，没有歧义。
总结：as close together as possible的言外之意是跳跃指代，而跳跃指代的前提是没有歧义。
问题4.3：通过OG的例题，加深印象。
OG18分册第241题：就近修饰
明白句子的本意：colder and wetterthan …修饰weather，而这样糟糕的weather导致了slow sales….
因此答案是B，看看OG的解释：
A. The insertion of was is unnecessary and misleading. The referent of which is unclear because regions, not weather.
B. Correct. This sentence is concise, correct, and idiomatic, and which has a clear referent, the weather.
…
OG18第721题：跳跃指代
选项A：the remainder of the increase/ drug spending came from sales
which到底指代什么呢？指代不明，所以错了（准确来说修饰成分应该为the increase）
因此，体会一下为什么选项split出现了：which ~ the increase ~ it，很明显这就是考点
总结：当一个noun存在两个noun modifier的时候，必然出现跳跃指代；只要指代没有歧义，就没有问题。
可是，问题5：什么情况下没有歧义呢？
第一，一个noun，两个noun modifier，从后往前看，语意判断，比如：
The old building in Beijing, which was built thousands of years ago, is now a historic landmark.
的确which可以修饰Beijing，但利用反证法从后往前看：which从句语意上不可能修饰Beijing，因此只能修饰building，语意上不存在歧义。
同理：The old building in Beijing, which is the capital of China, is now a historic landmark.
which可以就近修饰Beijing，也可以跳跃修饰building。但“可以跳跃修饰”不等于“必须跳跃修饰”，可以跳跃，也可以不跳跃。这里which是就近修饰Beijing，不跳跃。
总结：
1. noun + prep phrase + which/that的结构，可以跳跃，也可以不跳。
2.关键在于which/that从句本身语意是什么。
第二，主谓一致情况。比如问题4中例句，“which are”只能修饰复数名词，因此只能修饰pictures。
第三，倒装情况+动词，比如：
A new manager has been hired who will transform the company by decentralizing authority to various division heads while increasing their accountability through the use of public score cards.
倒装，避免头重脚轻：原句语序应该是A new CEO who will transform…has hired，但真这么写，这句子就没法看了。
动词：如果句子是A new managerhas hired by Jackie who will transform…这就有歧义了，幸亏原句who前面是动词hired，没法就近。
总结：只要没歧义，跳跃修饰主语也无妨。
第四，插入语+that。首先注意逗号不会和that连用，比如：
1. This possibility has been obscured by the recent sociological fashion, that emphasizes…
2. This possibility has been obscured by the recent sociological fashion that emphasizes…
第1句明显很奇怪，从未见过。
因此来看阅读中例句：
This possibility has been obscured by the recent sociological fashion, exemplified by B’s analysis, that emphasizes the way machinery reflects social choices.
因此这里的“that emphasizes the way…”不可能修饰analysis。
如果我们直接把双逗号插入语砍掉，句子就清爽了：
This possibility has been obscured by the recent sociological fashion that emphasizes the way machinery reflects social choices.
不过这里如果不是that，而是which，和问题4.3中OG18分册第241题一样了。
总结：插入语+that，直接删掉插入语。
第五，平行连接两个noun modifier，比如Manhattan例句：
The term “tincture” refers to a color emblazoned on a coat of arms and labeled with a special French word.
只要是noun modifier，就都存在跳跃指代的情况；我们专门挑which/that的定语从句来讲，不代表纯种V-ing / V-ed的修饰就不算。
上述例句又是“一个noun，两个noun modifier”的情况，只不过这次换用平行的方式了，所以应该好懂：labeled with跳跃修饰a color。
总结：一个noun，两个noun modifier，必定出现跳跃指代。
问题6：如何处理跳跃指代？
我们已经隐隐约约谈到“如何处理”这个问题了，就是长难句训练营所说的“拆解”！步骤如下：
拆解第一步，以which/that为marker，把句子拆成两半。
拆解第二步，从后往前看，通过语意判断，替换which/that。
结合长难句训练营，我提供一些例句供大家参考：
First, the focus on positional rank does not recognize the variation in length of service that may exist in top executive posts.
拆解第一步，两句话：
1. The focus does not recognize the variation.
2. That may exist in top executive posts.
拆解第二步，通过语意，替换that：
2.1 Service may exist in top executive posts.
2.2 Length of service may exist in top executive posts.
2.3 Variation may exist in top executive posts.
2.3应该更说的过去→跳跃指代。
Responding to these limitations, Bergh conducted a study of executive retention and acquisition outcome that focused on the organizational tenure.
拆解第一步，两句话：
1. Bergh conducted a study of executive retention and acquisition outcome.
2. That focused on the organizational tenure.
拆解第二步，通过语意，替换that，这里that有多种替换可能：
2.1 Acquisition outcome focused on the organizational tenure.
2.2 Executive retention focused on the organizational tenure.
2.3 A study focused on the organizational tenure.
哪个语意最正确？2.3是对的→跳跃指代
不论在SC还是RC，which修饰都是重点。判断真正修饰的对象，就是进阶高分的必经之路，你准备好开始训练了吗？
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Jackie Zeng的其他文章：
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