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人终有一死,为何还要努力创造?

BNU_自我研究 SelfCulturalPsy 2023-05-13



死亡焦虑一直以来都是悬在人类头顶的达摩克利斯之剑。1973年,人类文化学家Ernest Becker提出:人类可能是唯一知道自己最终结局的生物,也是唯一始终生活在恐惧中的生物。心理学研究发现,七岁左右的儿童就已经开始形成死亡的观念,明白死亡并非如睡眠等暂时性状态,是生命的彻底毁灭。



对死亡的焦虑与恐惧伴随人类一生,也是人类行为的基础。中国古代君王寻佛问道以求长生,西方基督教坚信入天堂得永生,都展现出人类对脱离死亡掌控的渴求。然而可惜的是,想维持肉体不死只不过是痴人说梦。于是,人类建立了文化、信仰、价值观,甚至整个文明,以求精神与灵魂不灭。

死亡有两种形式,一是肉体的死亡,二是精神的死亡。捷克小说家米兰·昆德拉曾说:死亡最可怕的地方不是让你丢失未来,而是让你失去过去。相较于肉体的湮灭,被人遗忘才是真正的死亡。人类纵然是万物灵长,在肉体死亡面前,也难以逃脱与其它生物相同的宿命。这一点上,也许我们与其它生物并无不同。但我们可以创造,在创造中让精神永续。我们建立社会,创造文明,在其中留下我们自己的印记。未来纵使斗转星移、沧海桑田,只要文明依然赓续,我们的精神就依然存在。


来自赖希曼大学、亚利桑那大学等不同院校的八位学者探讨了当个体意识到自己与其它动物并无差别时,该用怎样的力量去应对死亡,文章于2021年12月29日发表在Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin上。研究者通过六项子研究,来探究什么样的力量可以帮助我们应对死亡。

首先,研究者要求被试填写“自我与动物感知相似性”量表(perceived similarity of the self to animals, PSSA),即评价一个人在多大程度上认为自己与其它动物有多相似。在对896名美国学生进行的初步研究中,研究者发现,PSSA得分较高的个体(认为自己与其他动物并无差别)对创造性尤为关注,而对国家的认同度较低。另一项针对422名美国成年人子研究也发现,较高PSSA得分的个体更倾向于参与艺术等创造性活动。


在随后的研究中,189名以色列犹太人参与了线上实验,并被随机分为两个组别。实验组(n = 93)被要求反思死亡,如“当你想到自己的死亡时,你会产生什么样的情绪”、“当你的肉体死亡后,你认为会发生什么”等,控制组(n = 96)则被要求思考身体疼痛的经历。结果显示,在面对有关死亡的问题时,高PSSA的个体更倾向于将创造力作为应对死亡焦虑的武器。出乎意料的是,在面临身体疼痛问题(控制组)时,低PSSA的个体反而更关注创造性,其原因也尚未明确。



在最后的研究中,研究者测试了被试在收到有关自身创造性的负面反馈时,展现出来的焦虑程度。结果也显示,高PSSA的个体展现出更高的焦虑水平。研究者认为,这六项子研究都支持同一种观点,即个体的创造性对于应对死亡焦虑非常重要,尤其是对于高PSSA的个体而言。


研究者认为,普通个体为了应对死亡焦虑,选择将自己的生命投身于家庭、社会乃至文明的建设中,为自己的生命赋予意义。而这样做的本质依然是认同人类文明的特殊性,对自身所在群体有独特的归属感,因而想到能够在文明中留下自己的一笔痕迹,就能够应对死亡带来的恐惧。即“动物的死也许没有意义,但人类是万物灵长,我可以为家人而死、为国家而死,为人类而死,我的死是有意义的。”

而高PSSA的个体认为自己只是自然界的普通一份子,对人类特殊性的认同较少,对自己所在群体的认同度也较低。因而他们选择以独特的创造来彰显自己生的价值,获得精神不朽的感觉。即“人与动物本无不同,都终有一死,因此只有创造出独特的东西,才能证明我活过。”


读文献,学写Bridge


本文通过六个研究探讨了自我-动物相似性,创造力与死亡焦虑间的关系。六项研究之间逻辑紧密,尤其是每个研究之间的逻辑过渡(Bridge)写得尤为清楚,可以帮助我们更好地理解,究竟什么是环环相扣——从相关到因果,从问卷到实验,从特殊到普遍。


首先,研究者在The Current Research部分,简明扼要地介绍了每个研究的目的。


We tested Hypothesis 1 by examining whether high-PSSA individuals, as compared with low-PSSA individuals, attach more importance to being creative and achieving unique accomplishments (Study 1), engage in more creativity related subjects such as the arts (Study 2), and score higher on trait openness (Study 5). In Studies 3 and 4, we tested whether mortality salience (compared with a control condition) increases the importance attached to being creative among high-PSSA individuals. We tested Hypothesis 2 by examining (a) whether high-PSSA individuals score higher on trait anxiety and neuroticism than low-PSSA individuals (Study 5), and (b) whether high-PSSA individuals would have higher levels of DTA and state anxiety after experiencing a threat to their sense of creativity compared with a nothreat condition (Study 6).


随后,在每项研究的结束之处,研究者既会针对当前研究的结果加以精炼的总结,又会指出其与后一项研究之间的逻辑关系。


从研究一到研究二


These results partially supported Hypothesis 1: PSSA was positively associated with caring about being creative, but it was not associated with caring about achieving unique accomplishments. Our results also suggest that PSSA had unique predictive power beyond other related variables. Nevertheless, we continued to examine other variables in the subsequent studies to further establish the discriminatory validity of PSSA.


从研究二到研究三


Still, to fully test Hypothesis 1, and investigate the role of terror management in the PSSA-creativity link, we needed to conduct an experimental study manipulating mortality salience.


从研究三到研究四


Overall, these findings supported our hypothesis that high-PSSA individuals are motivated to use creativity as a terror management strategy. Although it remained unclear why in the control condition, low-PSSA individuals cared slightly more about creativity than high-PSSA individuals, the findings were otherwise fully in line with our predictions.


Study 4 was a preregistered replication of the findings from Study 3, using an international sample of participants from the online platform Reddit.com.


从研究四到研究五


These results provide a cross-cultural replication of the findings from Study 3, using an international participant sample and with slight variations in the methodology.


Study 5 was designed to examine Hypothesis 2 in a correlational design by asking participants to complete self-report measures of PSSA, trait anxiety, and neuroticism.

从研究五到研究六


The results lend some support for Hypothesis 2a, as PSSA was positively related to trait anxiety, although not to neuroticism. This study did provide more support for Hypothesis 1a, as PSSA was positively associated with openness, and this correlation would remain significant with the Bonferroni correction. Finally, by comparing with other potentially related variables, the results further established evidence for the discriminatory validity of the PSSA measure.


Study 6 tested Hypothesis 2 experimentally. If high-PSSA individuals are indeed more anxious and care more about their creativity, then they should also experience more anxiety after a threat to their creativity.


参考文献

Lifshin, U., Greenberg, J.,Syropoulos, S., Leidner, B., Helm, P. J., Sullivan, D., ... & Mikulincer,M. (2021). Perceived Similarity of the Self to Animals, Creativity, andAnxiety—: A Terror Management Analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 01461672211063260.



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