刊讯｜SSCI 期刊《双语：语言与认知》2021年第5期

Bilingualism: Language and Cognition

Volume 24, Issue 5, November 2021

Bilingualism: Language and Cognition（SSCI一区，2020 IF：3.532）2021年第5期共发文16篇，其中研究性论文7篇，评论文章7篇。刊载论文涉及双语研究、多模态研究、双语语言能力和表现的计算机建模、双语者功能研究、二语习得研究、ERP分析方法等方面。

目录

EDITORIAL

■BLC mini-series: New statistical approaches and research practices for bilingualism research, by João Veríssimo, Pages 799–800.

REVIEW ARTICLE

■Towards a credibility revolution in bilingualism research: Open data and materials as stepping stones to more reproducible and replicable research, by Cylcia Bolibaugh, Norbert Vanek, Emma J. Marsden, Pages 801–806.

■The benefits of preregistration for hypothesis-driven bilingualism research, by Daniela Mertzen, Sol Lago, Shravan Vasishth, Pages 807–812.

■Power considerations in bilingualism research: Time to step up our game, by Marc Brysbaert, Pages 813–818.

■Applying meta-analysis to research on bilingualism: An introduction, by Luke Plonsky, Ekaterina Sudina, Yuhang Hu, Pages 819–824.

■Nonlinearities in bilingual visual word recognition: An introduction to generalized additive modeling, by Koji Miwa, Harald Baayen, Pages 825–832.

■Divergence point analyses of visual world data: applications to bilingual research, by Kate Stone, Sol Lago, Daniel J. Schad, Pages 833–841.

■Analysis of rating scales: A pervasive problem in bilingualism research and a solution with Bayesian ordinal models, by João Veríssimo, Pages 842–848.

RESEARCH ARTICLE

■Lexical category differences in bilingual picture naming: Implications for models of lexical representation, by Yasmeen Faroqi-Shah, Yanni Kevas, Ran Li, Pages 849–863.

■Consolidation as a mechanism for word learning in sequential bilinguals, by Giacomo Tartaro, Atsuko Takashima, James M. McQueen, Pages 864–878.

■The impact of a discourse context on bilingual cross-language lexical activation, by Ana I. Schwartz, Karla S. Tarin, Pages 879–890.

■Cross-linguistic transfer in bilingual reading is item specific, by Marie Lallier, Clara D. Martin, Joana Acha, Manuel Carreiras, Pages 890–901.

■Bilingual writing coactivation: Lexical and sublexical processing in a word dictation task, by Antonio Iniesta, Daniela Paolieri, Francisca Serrano, M. Teresa Bajo, Pages 902–917.

■In a bilingual state of mind: Investigating the continuous relationship between bilingual language experience and mentalizing, by Mehrgol Tiv, Elisabeth O’Regan, Debra Titone, Pages 918–931.

■Conceptual representations in bicultural bilinguals: An ERP approach, by Xuan Pan, Andy Xiong, Olessia Jouravlev, Debra Jared, Pages 932–944.

CORRIGENDUM

■The sensitivity to context modulates executive control: Evidence from Malayalam–English bilinguals– CORRIGENDUM, by Riya Rafeekh, Ramesh Kumar Mishra, Pages 945.

摘要

BLC mini-series: New statistical approaches and research practices for bilingualism research

João Veríssimo, ‍‍‍‍‍Center of Linguistics, School of Arts and Humanities, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal‍‍‍‍‍

Abstract The past decade has witnessed some dramatic methodological changes in the wider disciplines of psycholinguistics, psychology, and experimental linguistics. One such set of changes comprises the development of open and transparent research practices, which have increasingly been adopted in response to concerns that empirical results often fail to replicate and may not generalise across samples and experimental conditions (Gibson & Fedorenko, 2013; Maxwell, Lau, & Howard, 2015; McElreath & Smaldino, 2015; Yarkoni, 2020). Another important set of changes concerns the use of sophisticated statistical techniques, such as mixed-effects models (Baayen, Davidson, & Bates, 2008) and Bayesian analyses (Vasishth, Nicenboim, Beckman, Li & Kong, 2018), which can provide much more information about magnitudes of effects and sources of variation than the more traditional statistical approaches.

Key words statistical methods, research practices, bilingualism, psycholinguistics, open science

Towards a credibility revolution in bilingualism research: Open data and materials as stepping stones to more reproducible and replicable research

Cylcia Bolibaugh, University of York, York, UKNorbert Vanek, University of Auckland, Auckland, NZEmma J. Marsden, University of York, York, UK

Abstract The extent to which findings in bilingualism research are contingent on specific analytic choices, experimental designs, or operationalisations, is currently unknown. Poor availability of data, analysis code, and materials has hindered the development of cumulative lines of research. In this review, we survey current practices and advocate a credibility revolution in bilingualism research through the adoption of minimum standards of transparency. Full disclosure of data and code is necessary not only to assess the reproducibility of original findings, but also to test the robustness of these findings to different analytic specifications. Similarly, full provision of experimental materials and protocols underpins assessment of both the replicability of original findings, as well as their generalisability to different contexts and samples. We illustrate the review with examples where good practice has advanced the agenda in bilingualism research and highlight resources to help researchers get started.

Key words open data, open code, open materials, reproducibility, age effects, bilingual advantage

The benefits of preregistration for hypothesis-driven bilingualism research

Daniela Mertzen,  Department of Linguistics, University of Potsdam, Potsdam

Sol Lago, Institute for Romance Languages and Literatures, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt

Shravan Vasishth, Department of Linguistics, University of Potsdam, Potsdam

Abstract Preregistration is an open science practice that requires the specification of research hypotheses and analysis plans before the data are inspected. Here, we discuss the benefits of preregistration for hypothesis-driven, confirmatory bilingualism research. Using examples from psycholinguistics and bilingualism, we illustrate how non-peer reviewed preregistrations can serve to implement a clean distinction between hypothesis testing and data exploration. This distinction helps researchers avoid casting post-hoc hypotheses and analyses as confirmatory ones. We argue that, in keeping with current best practices in the experimental sciences, preregistration, along with sharing data and code, should be an integral part of hypothesis-driven bilingualism research.

Key words Preregistration, open science, bilingualism, psycholinguistics, confirmatory analysis, exploratory analysis

Power considerations in bilingualism research: Time to step up our game

Marc Brysbaert, Ghent University, Belgium

Abstract Low power in empirical studies can be compared to blurred vision. It makes the signal ambiguous, so that conclusions depend more on interpretation than on observation. Data patterns that look sensible are published as evidence for theoretical positions and unclear patterns are discarded as noise, whereas both could be due to sampling error or could be a perfect reflection of the population parameters. Simulations indicate that little research with sample sizes lower than 100 participants per group provides a picture of enough resolution to draw firm conclusions. This is particularly true for research comparing groups of people and involving interaction effects. As a result, it is to be feared that many findings in bilingualism research do not have a firm base, certainly not if they go beyond a simple comparison of two within-participants conditions.

Key words Bilingualism, power, replication

Applying meta-analysis to research on bilingualism: An introduction

Luke Plonsky, Department of English, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA

Ekaterina Sudina, Department of English, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA

Yuhang Hu, Department of English, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA

Abstract Meta-analysis overcomes a number of the limitations of traditional literature reviews (Norris & Ortega, 2006). Consequently, the use of meta-analysis as a synthetic technique has been applied across a range of scientific disciplines in recent decades. This paper seeks to formally introduce the potential of meta-analysis to the field of bilingualism. In doing so, we first describe a number of advantages to the meta-analytic approach such as greater systematicity, objectivity, and transparency relative to narrative reviews. We also outline the major stages in conducting a meta-analysis, highlighting critical considerations encountered at each stage. These include (a) domain definition, (b) coding scheme development and implementation, (c) analysis, and (d) interpretation. The focus, however, is on providing a conceptual introduction rather than a full-length tutorial. Meta-analyses in bilingualism and nearby fields are referred to throughout in order to illustrate the points being made.

Key words meta-analysis, research synthesis, effect sizes, bilingualism, quantitative research methods

Nonlinearities in bilingual visual word recognition: An introduction to generalized additive modeling

Koji Miwa, Graduate School of Humanities, Nagoya University, Nagoya

Harald Baayen, Department of Linguistics, Eberhard Karls University Tuebingen, Tuebingen

Abstract This paper introduces the generalized additive mixed model (GAMM) and the quantile generalized additive mixed model (QGAMM) through reanalyses of bilinguals’ lexical decision data from Dijkstra et al. (2010) and Miwa et al. (2014). We illustrate how regression splines can be used to test for nonlinear effects of cross-language similarity in form as well as for controlling experimental trial effects. We further illustrate the tensor product smooth for a nonlinear interaction between cross-language semantic similarity and word frequency. Finally, we show how the QGAMM helps clarify whether the effect of a particular predictor is constant across distributions of RTs.

Key words Nonlinearity, generalized additive modeling, quantile regression, cognate processing, visual word recognition

Divergence point analyses of visual world data: applications to bilingual research

Kate Stone, University of Potsdam

Sol Lago, Goethe University Frankfurt

Daniel J. Schad, University of Tilburg

Abstract Much work has shown that differences in the timecourse of language processing are central to comparing native (L1) and non-native (L2) speakers. However, estimating the onset of experimental effects in timecourse data presents several statistical problems including multiple comparisons and autocorrelation. We compare several approaches to tackling these problems and illustrate them using an L1-L2 visual world eye-tracking dataset. We then present a bootstrapping procedure that allows not only estimation of an effect onset, but also of a temporal confidence interval around this divergence point. We describe how divergence points can be used to demonstrate timecourse differences between speaker groups or between experimental manipulations, two important issues in evaluating L2 processing accounts. We discuss possible extensions of the bootstrapping procedure, including determining divergence points for individual speakers and correlating them with individual factors like L2 exposure and proficiency. Data and an analysis tutorial are available at https://osf.io/exbmk/. 

Key words divergence point analyses; non-parametric approaches; bootstrapping; visual world; eye-tracking; Bilingualism

Analysis of rating scales: A pervasive problem in bilingualism research and a solution with Bayesian ordinal models

João Veríssimo, Potsdam Research Institute for Multilingualism, Potsdam,      GermanyCenter of Linguistics, School of Arts and Humanities, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal

Abstract Research in bilingualism often involves quantifying constructs of interest by the use of rating scales: for example, to measure language proficiency, dominance, or sentence acceptability. However, ratings are a type of ordinal data, which violates the assumptions of the statistical methods that are commonly used to analyse them. As a result, the validity of ratings is compromised and the ensuing statistical inferences can be seriously distorted. In this article, we describe the problem in detail and demonstrate its pervasiveness in bilingualism research. We then provide examples of how bilingualism researchers can employ an appropriate solution using Bayesian ordinal models. These models respect the inherent discreteness of ratings, easily accommodate non-normality, and allow modelling unequal psychological distances between response categories. As a result, they can provide more valid, accurate, and informative inferences about graded constructs such as language proficiency. Data and code are publicly available in an OSF repository at https://osf.io/grs8x.

Key words rating scales, ordinal models, Bayesian analysis, language proficiency, acceptability judgements

Lexical category differences in bilingual picture naming: Implications for models of lexical representation

Yasmeen Faroqi-Shah, University of Maryland, College Park, USA

Yanni Kevas, University of Maryland, College Park, USA

Ran Li, Boston University, Boston, USA

Abstract Bilingual speakers are less accurate and slower than monolinguals in word production. This BILINGUAL COST has been demonstrated primarily for nouns. This study compared verb and noun retrieval to better understand bilingual lexical representation and test alternate hypotheses about bilingual cost. Picture naming speeds from highly proficient English–Spanish bilinguals showed a smaller bilingual cost for verbs compared to nouns. In Experiment 1, picture naming speeds were influenced by name agreement, age-of-acquisition and word length. Additionally, noun (but not verb) naming speed was predicted by word frequency. Experiment 2 examined two potential explanations for the smaller bilingual cost for verbs: verbs experience weaker cross-language interference (measured by translation speed) and smaller frequency effects. Both these predictions were confirmed, showing crucial differences between verbs and nouns and suggesting that cross-language facilitation rather than interference influences bilingual lexical retrieval, and that the frequency lag account of bilingual cost is more applicable to nouns than to verbs. We propose a Bilingual Integrated Grammatical Category model for highly proficient bilinguals to represent lexical category differences.

Key words bilingual, noun, picture naming, translation, verb

Consolidation as a mechanism for word learning in sequential bilinguals

Giacomo Tartaro, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands

Atsuko Takashima, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands

James M. McQueen, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, 

The NetherlandsMax Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen, The Netherlands

Abstract First-language research suggests that new words, after initial episodic-memory encoding, are consolidated and hence become lexically integrated. We asked here if lexical consolidation, about word forms and meanings, occurs in a second language. Italian–English sequential bilinguals learned novel English-like words (e.g., apricon, taught to mean “stapler”). fMRI analyses failed to reveal a predicted shift, after consolidation time, from hippocampal to temporal neocortical activity. In a pause-detection task, responses to existing phonological competitors of learned words (e.g., apricot for apricon) were slowed down if the words had been learned two days earlier (i.e., after consolidation time) but not if they had been learned the same day. In a lexical-decision task, new words primed responses to semantically-related existing words (e.g., apricon-paper) whether the words were learned that day or two days earlier. Consolidation appears to support integration of words into the bilingual lexicon, possibly more rapidly for meanings than for forms.

Key words word learning, memory consolidation, lexical integration, Italian–English sequential bilinguals

The impact of a discourse context on bilingual cross-language lexical activation

Ana I. Schwartz, Department of Psychology, The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso Texas, USA

Karla S. Tarin, Department of Psychology, The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso Texas, USA

Abstract Four hypotheses regarding the impact of discourse context on cross-language lexical activation were tested. Highly-proficient, Spanish–English bilinguals read all-English paragraphs containing non-identical and identical cognates or noncognate controls while their eye-movements were tracked. There were four paragraph conditions based on a full crossing of semantic bias from the topic sentence and sentence containing the critical word. In analyses in which cognate status was treated categorically there was an interaction between global bias and cognates status such that the observed inhibitory effects of cognate status were attenuated in global-neutral contexts. Follow-up analyses on the non-identical cognates in which orthographic overlap was treated continuously revealed a U-shaped function between orthographic overlap and processing time, which was more pronounced in global-neutral contexts. The overall pattern of findings is consistent with a combined operation of resonant-based and feature-restriction mechanisms of context effects.

Key words lexical access, bilingualism, discourse comprehension, context effects, language non-selectivity

Cross-linguistic transfer in bilingual reading is item specific

Marie Lallier, Basque Center on Cognition, Brain and Language, San Sebastián, SpainClara D. Martin, Basque Center on Cognition, Brain and Language, San Sebastián, SpainIkerbasque, Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao, SpainJoana Acha, Departamento Psicología básica, UPV/EHU, San Sebastián, SpainBiodonostia. Health Research Institute. San Sebastián, SpainManuel Carreiras, Basque Center on Cognition, Brain and Language, San Sebastián, SpainIkerbasque, Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao, SpainDepartamento de Lengua Vasca y Comunicación, UPV/EHU, Bilbao, Spain

Abstract The grain size of orthographic representations prompted by a consistent orthography (like Spanish or Basque) increases if reading is simultaneously learned in another language with an inconsistent orthography (like French). Here, we aimed to identify item properties that trigger this grain-size accommodation in bilingual reading. Twenty-five French–Basque and 25 Spanish–Basque bilingual children attending Grade 3 read Basque words and pseudowords containing “complex” letter clusters mapping to one sound in French but several sounds in Basque or Spanish, and “simple” letter clusters mapping to the same sound structure in all three languages. Only French speaking children read “complex” Basque words faster than “simple” ones, suggesting that they accessed multi-letter “French” units to boost lexical processing. A negative complexity effect was found for pseudowords across groups. We discuss the existence of flexible cross-linguistic transfer in bilingual reading, proposing that the grain size of orthographic representations adjusts to item-specific characteristics during reading.

Key words bilingualism, reading, cross-linguistic transfer, grain size

Bilingual writing coactivation: Lexical and sublexical processing in a word dictation task

Antonio Iniesta, Mind, Brain and Behavior Research Center (CIMCYC), Department of Experimental 

Psychology, University of Granada, Granada, Spain

Daniela Paolieri, Mind, Brain and Behavior Research Center (CIMCYC), Department of Experimental 

Psychology, University of Granada, Granada, Spain

Francisca Serrano, Mind, Brain and Behavior Research Center (CIMCYC), Department of Developmental and Educational 

Psychology, University of Granada, Granada, Spain

M. Teresa Bajo, Mind, Brain and Behavior Research Center (CIMCYC), Department of Experimental 

Psychology, University of Granada, Granada, Spain

Abstract Bilinguals’ two languages seem to be coactivated in parallel during reading, speaking, and listening. However, this coactivation in writing has been scarcely studied. This study aimed to assess orthographic coactivation during spelling-to-dictation. We took advantage of the presence of polyvalent graphemes in Spanish (one phonological representation with two orthographic specifications, e.g., / b /for both the graphemes v and b) to manipulate orthographic congruency. Spanish–English bilinguals were presented with cross-linguistic congruent (movement–movimiento) and incongruent words (government–gobierno) for a dictation task. The time and accuracy to initiate writing and to type the rest-of-word (lexical and sublexical processing) were recorded in both the native language (L1) and the second language (L2). Results revealed no differences between conditions in monolinguals. Bilinguals showed a congruency and language interaction with better performance for congruent stimuli, which was evident from the beginning of typing in L2. Language coactivation and lexical–sublexical interaction during bilinguals’ writing are discussed.

Key words bilingual writing processing, language coactivation, cross-linguistic orthographic effect, spelling-to-dictation, polyvalent graphemes

In a bilingual state of mind: Investigating the continuous relationship between bilingual language experience and mentalizing

Mehrgol Tiv, McGill University, Montréal, Canada

Elisabeth O’Regan, McGill University, Montréal, Canada

Debra Titone, McGill University, Montréal, Canada

Abstract Mentalizing, a dynamic form of social cognition, is strengthened by language experience. Past research has found that bilingual children and adults outperform monolinguals on mentalizing tasks. However, bilingual experiences are multidimensional and diverse, and it is unclear how continuous individual differences in bilingual language experience relate to mentalizing. Here, we examine whether individual differences in bilingual language diversity, measured through language entropy, continuously pattern with mentalizing judgments among bilingual adults, and whether this relationship is constrained by first vs. second language reading. We tested sixty-one bilingual adults on a reading and inference task that compared mental state and logical inferences. We found that greater language diversity patterned with higher mentalizing judgments of mental state inferences across all readers, and that L2 readers attributed more mentalizing to logical inferences compared to L1 readers. Together, we found evidence of a positive relationship between continuous individual differences in bilingual language diversity and mentalizing.

Key words mentalizing, bilingualism, inferences, theory of mind, social cognition, pragmatics, language diversity

Conceptual representations in bicultural bilinguals: An ERP approach

Xuan Pan, University of Western Ontario, London, Canada

Andy Xiong, University of Western Ontario, London, Canada

Olessia Jouravlev, Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada

Debra Jared, University of Western Ontario, London, Canada

Abstract We investigated conceptual representations for translation word pairs in bilinguals who learned their languages in different cultural contexts. Mandarin–English bilinguals were presented with a word, and then a picture, and decided if they matched. Both behavioural and ERP data were collected. In one session, words were in English and in another they were the Mandarin translations. Critical pictures matched the prior word and were either biased to Chinese or Canadian culture. There was an interaction of test language and picture type in RT and errors in the behavioural data, and in five components in the ERP data, indicating that the task was easier when the culture depicted in the picture was congruent with the language of the preceding word. These findings provide evidence that the specific perceptual experiences that bilinguals encounter when learning words in each language have an impact on the semantic features that are activated by those words.

Key words bilinguals, bicultural, conceptual representations, translation words, word–picture matching task

期刊简介

Bilingualism: Language and Cognition is an international peer-reviewed journal focusing on bilingualism from a linguistic, psycholinguistic, and neuroscientific perspective. The aims of the journal are to promote research on the bilingual and multilingual person and to encourage debate in the field. Areas covered include: bilingual language competence, bilingual language processing, bilingual language acquisition in children and adults, bimodal bilingualism, neurolinguistics of bilingualism in normal and brain-damaged individuals, computational modelling of bilingual language competence and performance, and the study of cognitive functions in bilinguals. The journal maintains an inclusive attitude to research involving all languages, and we specifically encourage the study of less well researched languages (including especially minority and minoritized languages) to increase our understanding of how language and cognition interact in the bilingual individual. 

《双语:语言与认知》是一本国际同行评议的期刊，主要从语言学、心理语言学和神经科学的角度探讨双语现象。该杂志的目的是促进对双语和多语的人群的研究，并鼓励在该领域的争鸣。议题包括:双语语言能力、双语语言加工、儿童和成人双语语言习得、双模双语、正常人和脑损伤者双语能力的神经语言学、双语语言能力和表现的计算建模、双语者认知功能的研究。该杂志对涉及所有语言的研究持包容态度，我们特别鼓励对研究较少的语言(特别是少数民族和少数民族语言)的研究，以增加我们对双语人群语言和认知如何相互作用的理解。

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