Japan Series 日本系列 17 | A Brief History of Japan 日本简史
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Artist’s Depiction of the Japan’s Jomon Period
艺术家描述日本的新石器时代
According to historical findings, the northwestern tip of Hokkaido was once connected to the eastern extremities of Russia. It was here that the first known human migration from the mainland to the island nation now known as Japan began. Evidence of the early migration to Japan includes pottery and other foundations of a basic society tracing back to 35,000 BCE. This is known by historians as the Jomon period. The Jomon people were largely hunter-gatherers. Around 500 BCE, the Yayoi sailed from the Korean peninsula and dominated the regions from the south of Japan up to northern Honshu. The Japanese today are the result of interbreeding between these two early inhabitants.
根据历史学家的发现，北海道西北端曾与俄罗斯东端相连。已知的第一次人类从大陆迁徙到现在的日本岛是从这里开始的。早期迁徙到日本的人类的证据包括陶器和可追溯到公元前35,000年的基本社会的其他建社基础。历史学家将其称为日本新石器时代《Jomon Period》。新石器时代的人主要是狩猎采集者。大约在公元前500年，弥生人《Yayoi》从朝鲜半岛起航到日本并且统治了从日本南部到本州北部的各个地区。目前的日本人是这两个早期居民之间融合的结果。
There are no written records of Japanese society during this period of time, in fact, the only written records of Japan before the eighth century come from Chinese texts which refer to a country called Wa in the east.
在这段时期内没有日本社会的书面记录，实际上，八世纪以前日本唯一的书面记录来自中文文本，该文本指的是在东方有个叫“倭”国。
By 250 CE, a ruling state was formed and ruled from the modern-day Nara Prefecture. During this time, Shinto (“way of the gods”) developed, the followers of Shinto worship multiple Kami (gods or spirits) who reside in natural objects such as mountains, trees, and rocks, or manifest themselves in natural phenomenon such as wind and thunder. It is believed that the title of emperor evolved from the position of Shinto chief priest, although folklore holds that the first emperor descended from the sun goddess Amaterasu.
到了公元250年，一个统治国家从现代的奈良县形成并统治。在这段时间里，神道开始发展，神道的信徒们崇拜居住在山，树和岩石等自然物体中的多种神明（神或灵），或者以风，雷等自然现象表现出来。人们认为，皇帝的头衔是从神道教大祭司的职位演变而来的，尽管民间传说认为，第一个皇帝是太阳女神天照的后裔。
In the middle of the 6th century, Buddhism arrived in Japan and was accepted at first but was later rejected by the people after a plague. The plague was believed to have been brought unto them by a native sun goddess who was offended that her subjects would pray before a foreign deity. The Soga clan embraced Buddhism and rose to power helping in establishing Buddhism as one of the major religions in the region. The teachings of Confucius also crossed over from the mainland and along with it brought the first writing system, which provided the framework for an administrative and legal system.
公元6世纪中叶，佛教传入日本，最初被接受，但后来因瘟疫而被人们拒绝。据信这场瘟疫是由一位当地的太阳女神带来的，她这样做是因为她的臣民会开始信从国外来的神。索加宗族《Soga clan》信奉佛教，并上台后将佛教确立为该地区的主要宗教之一。孔子的教诲也从大陆传来，并随之带来了第一个文字系统，为行政和法律制度建立了基础。
Clothes during the Heian Period
平安时期的服装
The Heian period (794 to 1185) brought further unification of Japan by the subjugation of the northern Emishi people. Emishi people were the descendants of the early Jomon who had remained outside the sphere of influence of the government in the south. During this period, the capital relocated from Nara to Heian city which the present-day Kyoto, and it will remain so until 1868. This period was also when art and culture flourished in Japan, for example, the Tales of Genji was written during this period.
平安时代（794年至1185年）由于北部埃米什《Emishi》人的征服而进一步统一了日本。埃米什人是新石器时代人的后裔，他们一直不在南部政府的势力范围之内。在此期间，首都从奈良迁至今天的京都平安城市，一直沿用至1868年。这一时期也是日本文化和艺术蓬勃发展的时期，例如，《源氏物语》是在此期间写成的。
The emperor in Kyoto was not very powerful and he had to rely on warlords who had their own armies and dominated the regions outside Kyoto. In the mid 7th century, the government declared the ownership of all land and tax was to be levied to support the administration. To have a tax-free land, one will need to pledge allegiance to the emperor and by 12th century around half of Japan’s arable land was classified as Shoen (tax-free).
当时的京都皇帝不是很强大，他必须依靠拥有自己的军队并主导京都以外地区的军阀。在7世纪中叶，政府宣布所有土地的所有权和税收将被征收以支持政府。要拥有免税土地，就需要宣誓效忠天皇。到了12世纪，日本约有一半的耕地被划为Shoen（免税）。
A succession dispute for emperor in 1155 set off a 40 yearlong chain of violent events that ended with Minamoto no Yoritomo establishing the Kamakura bafuku and gaining the title of seii-taishogun (“The Conqueror of Barbarians”).
1155年，天皇的继承权纠纷引发了长达40年的一连串暴徒事件，最终由南本一世（Minamoto no Yoritomo）建立了镰仓八夫寺（Kamakura bafuku），并获得了“蛮族征服者”（seii taishogun）的称号。
Samurai Battle with the Mongolians
In 1274 and 1281 Mongol forces attempted invasions to the islands and helped in diluting the power of the rulers, the Shoguns. By the end of the 15th century, the country was going through a period of civil war known as the Sengoku-jidai. The power of the emperor was further reduced and the powerful clans would form their own code of conduct and sometimes issue their own currency. Many of the Japan’s most famous castles were constructed during these centuries of civil war, some of them are Himeiji, 1333; Odawara Castle, 1447; Matsumoto Castle, 1504.
在1274年和1281年，蒙古部队企图入侵这些岛屿，这样助于削弱了统治者幕府将军的实力。到15世纪末，该国经历了内战时期，称为“战国时代”。皇帝的权力进一步降低，不久后，强大的氏族将开始组织自己的行为准则，有时还会发行自己的货币。日本许多最著名的城堡都是在内战时期建造的，其中一些是1333年建的Himeiji；小田原城堡，1447年; 松本城堡，1504年。
The Statue of Oda Nobunaga
织田信长的雕像
It took three men to end the civil war and unify the country, they are Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and Tokugawa Leyasu. Nobunaga was a fierce leader and fought for the expansion of territory, watching his territory grow, the Shogun offered him a position of “vice Shogun.” He later betrayed the Shogun and burned the capital, Kyoto, in 1573 forcing the Shogun to flee into exile. Nine years later he committed seppuku (ritual suicide) after being betrayed and put under siege by one of his own vassals. At the time of his death, he had already made enough territorial gains that were to form the base for further unification by his successors.
有三个人负责结束内战并统一国家，分别是织田信长，丰臣秀吉和德川家康。信长是一个凶猛的领袖，为扩大领土而战，看着他的领土不断扩大，幕府将军给他一个“副幕府将军”的职位。后来他出卖幕府并烧毁了京都首都，1573年迫使幕府逃亡到 流亡。九年后，他被出卖并被自己的一位宗藩围困，自杀了。在他去世时，他已经取得了足够的领土，从而为继任者进一步统一奠定了基础。
The Statue of Toyotomi Hideyoshi
丰臣秀吉雕像
Toyotomi Hideyoshi was born in 1537 to one of Nobunaga’s foot soldiers. He grew up to become one of Nobunaga’s most trusted aides and a brilliant strategist. Upon Nobunaga’s death he became his successor and Leyasu served under him. Leyasu did not support Hideyoshi and after serving him for two years, he decided to support one of Nobunaga’s sons, Oda Nobukatsu, to be the rightful successor to Nobunaga, and consequently they fought a few battles. They reached an agreement and stopped war but Hideyoshi wanted to expand his territory. He conquered Shikoku in 1585 and Kyushu in 1587 before turning his attention abroad to Korea, sending 160,000 troops in 1592 and another 140,000 in 1597 but failed. Upon Hideyoshi’s death in 1598, Leyasu battled and won victories in many regions gaining the title of Shogun and ushering into the era known as the Edo period.
丰臣秀吉于1537年出生于信长的一名步兵。他长大后成为信长最可信赖的助手之一和出色的战略家。信长之死后，他成为他的继任者，利雅苏（Leyasu）在他的带领下任职。Leyasu不支持秀吉，在服役两年后，他决定支持信长的一个儿子织田信胜（Oda Nobukatsu），作为信长的合法继承人，因此他们进行了几场战斗。他们达成协议并停止了战争，但秀吉想扩大自己的领土。他在1585年征服了四国，并在1587年征服了九州，然后将注意力转移到韩国，在1592，1597年分别年派出了16万名士兵和14万名士兵到韩国但是最后失败了。在秀吉死后的1598年，利雅苏战役并赢得了许多地区的胜利，获得了幕府将军的头衔并将日本引入 江户时代。
Unified Japan was not enough to keep the country in harmony. The construction of the “Five Routes” which are five highways leading out from Nihombashi began. These will help to reduce the time needed to travel across the country and allow better control over the far-away provinces. More public infrastructures were built during this era and by the end of the 17th century, Edo was one of the most populous cities in the world with over one million inhabitants. Social divisions were developed at this period based on Shinokosho (“Four Divisions”) which defined a person’s status by occupation.
统一的日本还不足以保持该国的和谐。从日本桥引出的五条高速公路“五路”开始建设。这些将有助于减少在全国范围内的交通所需的时间，并可以更好地控制遥远的省份。在这个时代也见证了建造更多的公共基础设施。到了17世纪末，江户时代已成为世界上人口最多的城市之一，人口超过一百万。在此期间，根据Shinokosho（“四个部门”）发展了社会层次，这些层次根据职业定义了一个人的身份。
At the top were the samurai (shi), next were the farmers (no), farmers were highly valued because of their necessity to society as food producers, after the farmers were the artisans (ko), because their goods were non-essential; and, finally, the merchants (sho), the lowest on the ladder because they, as middleman, did not produce anything. The problem with this system was that it was not ideal, for example, the lower-ranking Samurai often lived on poverty while some of the successful merchants, especially in Tokyo and Osaka, saw their fortunes accumulate rapidly. Samurai did not accept this situation as they saw themselves as warriors and they should be thought of as a moral beacon for the rest of the society, rather than living in poverty.
最高的是武士（shi），其次是农民（no），农民因为他们作为食品生产者而对社会作为粮食生产者的必要性而受到高度重视，其次是工匠（ko），因为他们的商品是非必需品；最后是商人（sho），他们作为最低的层次是因为中介人什么都不生产。这种制度并在生活中不理想，例如，作为武士是属于社会高层次但是不出色的武士常常生活在贫困之中，而一些成功的商人，特别是在东京和大阪，他们变得越来越富。武士们不接受这种情况，因为他们认为自己是勇士，他们应该被视为社会其他人的道德灯塔，而不是生活在贫困之中。
The Great Wave off Kanagawa, Katsushika Hokusai
神奈川，葛饰北斋的大浪
The stability during the Edo period provided a base to which culture could flourish. One of the best examples is Ukiyoe woodblock prints that developed during this time. The country rejected any interactions from the outside world, and the Edo period is famous for Sakoku (“locked country”), an isolationist policy which lasted for about 250 year. During this time, foreign traders were relegated to an artificial island called Dejima in the bay of Nagasaki, and warlords were given orders to fire at any foreign vessel on sight. The Harris Treaty of 1858 between the U.S. and Japan forced the country to open several of its ports to foreign trade. Japan subsequently signed treaties on similar terms with Russia, France, Great Britain, and the Netherlands. But the Harris Treaty didn’t just forcibly end 250 years of isolationism—it also sowed the seed of resentment in the Japanese, who realized that they were not seen as equals in the eyes of the Western powers. This would go on to have significant ramifications as Japan set off on a course of industrialization.
江户时代的稳定为文化的繁荣奠定了基础。最好的例子之一就是在这段时间开发的浮世绘木版画。该国拒绝与外界进行任何接触，而江户时代以Sakoku（“锁定国家”）而闻名，Sakoku是一项持续了大约250年的孤立主义政策。在此期间，外国商人被拒而指到长崎湾的一个人工岛Dejima，在这里军阀被命令向任何可见的外国船只开火。1858年美日之间的《哈里斯条约》（Harris Treaty）迫使该国向对外贸易开放了多个港口。日本随后与俄罗斯，法国，英国和荷兰以类似条款签署了条约。但是，《哈里斯条约》不仅强行结束了250年的孤立主义，而且还播下了日本人的怨恨种子，日本人意识到在西方列强的眼中，它们并不被视为平等。随着日本开始走上工业化进程，这一点将继续产生重大影响。
The Battle of Sekigahara
关原之战
After 700 years of samurai rule, the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600, finally brought an end to Tokugawa rule during the brief Boshin War (1868-1869) and installed the emperor back as the ruling authority, an event known as the Meiji Restoration. The emperor moved from Kyoto to Edo in 1868 and the city became the official capital (and subsequently renamed Tokyo, “Eastern City”).
在经历了700年的武士统治之后，1600年的关原之战终于在短暂的博辛战争战争（1868-1869）中结束了德川幕府的统治，并将天皇重新确立为统治当局，这就是明治维新。皇帝于1868年从京都移居到江户，这座城市成为正式首都（后来更名为东京“东方之城”）。
The new emperor established five new policies considered to be the country’s first modern constitution, among the most important of all were:
新皇帝制定了五项被认为是日本第一部现代宪法的新政策，其中最重要的是：
·Evil customs of the past shall be broken off and everything based upon the just laws of Nature.
·应打破过去的邪恶习俗，一切以公正的自然法则为基础。
·Knowledge shall be sought throughout the world so as to strengthen the foundation of imperial rule.
·应在世界各地寻求知识，以加强帝国统治的基础。
These paved ways for Japan to embrace superior technological and industrial knowledge held by the Western powers. It was catching up on all aspects of governance through numerous reforms. In addition, many highly-paid foreign advisors were brought to Japan to instruct on subjects ranging from agriculture and medicine to engineering and education. Mining, steel production, shipbuilding, cotton spinning, textiles, silk—all witnessed rapid expansion during the Meiji era. Annual coal production, for instance, stood at 210,000 tons in 1874, but within ten years would reach 4 million tons and continue to more than double each decade such that by the end of World War I it would stand at over 30 million tons.
这些宪法为日本吸收西方列强掌握的先进技术和工业知识铺平了道路。通过众多改革，它正在赶上治理的各个方面。此外，许多高薪的外国顾问被带到日本，指导从农业和医学到工程和教育的各个领域。在明治时代，采矿，钢铁生产，造船，棉纺，纺织品，丝绸都在迅速扩张。例如，1874年煤炭年产量为21万吨，但在十年内将达到400万吨，并继续以每十年两倍的速度增长，到第一次世界大战结束时将超过3000万吨。
The leaders of the Iwakura Mission photographed in London in 1872. Iwakura Tomomi, the head of the mission, sits in the middle
岩仓使团的领导人于1872年在伦敦拍摄了照片。该团团长岩仓智美坐在中间
Realizing that it could not continue to rely on foreign advisers for sustained development, Japan implemented a program of sending statesmen and promising (or privileged) students abroad to study in the hope that they would come back and transfer their knowledge to others. The most famous of these is the Iwakura Mission between 1871-1873 which saw leading statesmen, scholars, and students travel to the United States, the United Kingdom, as well as a host of mainland European countries, before making their way back to Japan via Egypt, Ceylon, and Singapore, among other places.
日本意识到它无法继续依靠外国顾问来实现持续发展，因此实施了一项计划，将政治家和有希望的（或有特权的）学生派往国外学习，以期他们能够回来并将自己所学的知识传给其他国民。其中最著名的是在1871-1873年间的岩仓宣教所，当时著名的政治家，学者和学生前往美国，英国以及许多欧洲大陆国家，然后通过 埃及，锡兰和新加坡等地回日本。
The Japan-Korea Treaty of 1876 marked the beginning of Japan’s imperial ambitions. It also served to undermine Korea’s status as China’s tributary by re-affirming the country as an independent state with sovereign rights. After a broken Sino-Japanese agreement, Japan and China were at war which ended with Japan occupying Korea and much of Manchuria. In 1904, Japan made a surprise attack on Russia’s ships at Port Arthur (Dalian, China) before destroying the rest of the Russian fleet in the area between southern Japan and Korea. This was the first time a Western power was defeated by an Asian nation in modern history. Japan now treated as one of the emerging powers, was invited by Great Britain to join World War 1 in 1914, occupying German territories in China (Shanghai and Tsingtao among them). Its role earned it a seat on the Council of the League of Nations.
1876年的《日韩条约》标志着日本帝国主义野心的开始。它还通过重申朝鲜是一个拥有主权权利的独立国家破坏了朝鲜作为中国朝贡的地位。在中日达成破裂的协议后，日中两国正式开战争，日本占领了朝鲜，并占领了满洲。1904年，日本军在日本南部和朝鲜之间的区域摧毁了俄罗斯舰队，还对在亚瑟港（中国大连）的俄罗斯船进行了突击袭击。这是西方国家在现代历史上第一次被亚洲国家击败。从此日本被视为新兴大国之一，受英国邀请参加1914年的第一次世界大战，替代被打败的德国占领了其在中国的领土（其中包括上海和青岛）。它的作用使它成为国际联盟理事会中占有一席之地。
At this point, as one of the Global Powers, Japan was seeking equality and recognition. Japan proposed the following wording to be included on the Treaty of Versailles:
在这一项，作为全球大国之一，日本正在寻求平等和认可。日本提议将下列措辞列入在《凡尔赛条约》：
“The equality of nations being a basic principle of the League of Nations, the High Contracting Parties agree to accord as soon as possible to all alien nationals of states, members of the League, equal and just treatment in every respect making no distinction, either in law or in fact, on account of their race or nationality.”
“国家平等是国际联盟的一项基本原则，各缔约国同意尽快给予各国的所有外国人、联盟成员在各方面平等和公正的待遇，不论是在法律上，还是在事实上，不因其种族或国籍而加以区别。”
Japanese aggression brought condemnation from the international community. In August 1941, following a series of increasingly harsh sanctions, Woodrow Wilson froze Japanese assets and placed a complete oil embargo on the country (about 80% of Japan’s oil was imported from the U.S.). The response of Japan’s prime minister, Tojo Hideki, was to launch a surprise attack on the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor on the morning of 7 December 1941, with the aim of eliminating the possibility of U.S. interference in Japan’s imperial ambitions in Asia. The U.S. declared war on Japan the following day.
日本的侵略经传播引起了国际社会的谴责。1941年8月，在一系列日益严厉的制裁措施之后，伍德罗·威尔逊（Woodrow Wilson）冻结了日本资产，并对日本实施了全面的石油禁运（当时日本约80％的石油是从美国进口的）。日本首相东条秀树（Tojo Hideki）的反应是于1941年12月7日对珍珠港的美国海军基地发动突袭，目的是消除美国干涉日本在亚洲的雄心壮志的可能性。美国第二天向日本宣战。
Victims of air raids in Tokyo
东京空袭的受害者
With the threat from the U.S. seemingly dealt with, and the other Western powers waging war in Europe, Japan had a free hand in Asia. Within months, Hong Kong, Manila, and Singapore had fallen to the Japanese Imperial Army as it continued to push its way throughout the region. By mid-1942, however, everything changed. Japan’s navy suffered the loss of four aircraft carriers and one heavy cruiser at the Battle of Midway, and with the capture of Saipan by U.S. forces in 1944, the island was within the range of the U.S. air force’s B-29 bombers. The air raids of Tokyo that ensued were among the most destructive in world history (Operation Meetinghouse conducted over two days in February 1945, saw 300 B-29s drop almost 2,000 tons of napalm on the city, killing more than 100,000 people and leaving another one million homeless).
由于美国的威胁似乎已经排除了，而其他西方大国在欧洲发动了战争，日本在亚洲享有特权。过了几个月后，香港、马尼拉和新加坡沦落为日本帝国军，日军还继续推进整个地区开战。直到1942年年中，这一切都变了。日本海军在中途岛战役中损失了4艘航空母舰和1艘重型巡洋舰，随着1944年美军占领塞班岛，日本岛在美国空军B-29轰炸机的射程范围。随后美军对东京的空袭变成了世界历史上最具破坏性的空袭之一（1945年2月，会议厅行动进行了两天多，300架B-29轰炸机向东京投掷了近2000吨凝固汽油弹，造成10多万人死亡，导致另有100万人无家可归）。
Then, on the morning of 6 August 1945, the Enola Gay, a B-29 Superfortress, dropped “Little Boy” on Hiroshima. The atomic bomb exploded 2,000 feet above the ground, killing thousands instantly and leaving many thousands more with horrific burns. Three days later another atomic bomb was dropped on Nagasaki with similarly devastating effects (Kokura in northern Kyushu had been the original target but cloud and smoke cover over the town meant that the flight crew changed course to Nagasaki, the reserve target, after three fly overs).
然后，1945年8月6日上午，B-29超级堡垒Enola Gay在广岛投下了“小男孩” 原子弹。原子弹在地面2,000英尺高空爆炸，立即杀死数千人，并产生数以千计的可怕灼伤。三天后，另一枚原子弹投掷在长崎上空，造成了同样的破坏性后果（九州北部的小仓原定为目标，但镇上云雾笼罩，烟雾覆盖，飞行人员经过三次飞越后将航线改为了长崎这一后备目标 ）。
Following a failed coup d’etat by some members of the government and military, a recording of a speech by Emperor Hirohito—in classical language difficult to understand for many Japanese—was broadcast to the populace on the noon of 15 August. He explained that the government would unconditionally surrender and beseeched them to “endure the unendurable and suffer what is not sufferable”. It was the first time the Japanese people had heard his voice.
在一些政府和军人发动政变失败后，裕仁天皇的演讲录音（用许多日本人难以理解的古典语言）于8月15日中午向民众播出。他解释说，政府将无条件投降，并恳请他们“忍受无法忍受的苦难”。这是日本人民第一次听到他的声音。
On 30 August 1945, General Douglas MacArthur, commander of the United States Army Forces in the Far East, landed at Atsugi in Kanagawa Prefecture to take command of Japan and signed the Instrument of Surrender on 2 September the same year aboard the USS Missouri. MacArthur ordered the arrest of suspected war criminals such as Japan’s wartime prime minister and former general of the Imperial Japanese Army, Tojo Hideki (he shot himself in an attempt to commit suicide but was rescued by the doctors). Although many people called for the emperor to be arrested too, he was not.
1945年8月30日，远东美国陆军司令道格拉斯·麦克阿瑟（Douglas MacArthur）将军登陆神奈川县厚木市，接管日本，并于同年9月2日在密苏里号航空母舰上签署了日本投降书。麦克阿瑟下令逮捕可疑的战争罪犯，例如日本战时首相，日本帝国军前将军东条英树（他开枪自杀未遂，但被医生救出）。尽管许多人也呼吁皇帝被捕，但他没有被捕。
As we have seen, the notion that the emperor was a direct descendant of the sun goddess Amaterasu is one that has roots in very early Japanese history, and much of the wartime propaganda rested on the notion of divine racial purity. In an imperial rescript issued in a New Year’s statement on 1 January, 1946, the Imperial Family declared that the “ties between Us and Our People… are not predicated on the false conception that the Emperor is divine…”. The new constitution enacted in 1947—perhaps the most remarkable achievement of the occupation—went further in delimiting his role, stating the emperor to be “the symbol of the State and of the unity of the People, deriving his position from the will of the people with whom resides sovereign power”.
正如我们所看到的，天皇是太阳女神Amaterasu的直系后裔的观念是一种根植于日本早期历史的观念，而战时的宣传大多建立在神圣的种族纯洁的观念上。在1946年1月1日发表的新年声明中，皇室宣布“我们和我们的人民之间的关系……不是建立在皇帝是神圣的错误观念之上……”。1947年颁布的新宪法（也许是占领运动最显著的成就）进一步界定了皇帝的角色，规定皇帝是“国家和人民团结的象征，其地位源自与他拥有主权的人民的意愿”。
1947 constitution also outlawed the use of war to settle international disputes in Article 9. By 1952 when the American occupation came to an end, Japan had seen reforms to its political structure, new land and labor acts, changes to its education system, and the enfranchisement of women. The country was ready to chart its recovery.
这部1947年的宪法第9条还禁止日本使用战争来解决国际争端。到1952年被美国占领结束时，日本已经看到了政治结构的改革，新的土地和劳工法案，加上教育制度的改变，以及妇女的特权。该国已准备好制定复苏计划。
Japan Series 日本系列 16 | Interesting Facts About Japan 关于日本的有趣事实
Japan Series 日本系列 15 | The Japanese Education System 日本的教育制度
Int'l Students risk being frozen out of US college 百万外国学生或被迫离开美国
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