【双语视频】伊曼努尔·康德（Immanuel Kant）

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伊曼努尔·康德（德语原名：Immanuel Kant，公元1724年4月22日—公元1804年2月12日，享年79岁），德国作家、哲学家，德国古典哲学创始人，其学说深深影响近代西方哲学，并开启了德国古典哲学和康德主义等诸多流派。出生和逝世于德国柯尼斯堡。

康德是启蒙运动时期最后一位主要哲学家，是德国思想界的代表人物。他调和了勒内·笛卡儿的理性主义与法兰西斯·培根的经验主义，被认为是继苏格拉底、柏拉图和亚里士多德后，西方最具影响力的思想家之一。

康德有其自成一派的思想系统，并且有为数不少的著作,其中核心的三大著作被合称为“三大批判”，即《纯粹理性批判》、《实践理性批判》和《判断力批判》，这三部作品有系统地分别阐述他的知识学、伦理学和美学思想。《纯粹理性批判》尤其得到学术界重视，标志着哲学研究的主要方向由本体论转向认识论，是西方哲学史上划时代的巨著，被视为近代哲学的开端。此外，康德在宗教哲学、法律哲学和历史哲学方面也有重要论著。

康德哲学理论的一个基本出发点是，将经验转化为知识的理性（即范畴）是人与生俱来的，没有先天的范畴我们就无法理解世界。他的这个理论结合了英国经验主义与欧陆的理性主义，对德国古典哲学与浪漫主义影响深远。康德的道德哲学理论也十分著名。此外他还曾针对太阳系的形成提出第一个现代的理论解释，即康德-拉普拉斯假设。

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Immanuel Kant (/kænt/; German: [ɪˈmaːnu̯eːl kant]; 22 April 1724 – 12 February 1804) was a German philosopher who is considered the central figure of modern philosophy. Kant argued that the human mind creates the structure of human experience, that reason is the source of morality, that aesthetics arises from a faculty of disinterested judgment, that space and time are forms of our sensibility, and that the world as it is "in-itself" is independent of our perception of it. Kant took himself to have effected a Copernican revolution in philosophy, akin to Copernicus' reversal of the age-old belief that the sun revolved around the earth. His beliefs continue to have a major influence on contemporary philosophy, especially the fields of metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, political theory, and aesthetics.

Kant in his critical phase sought to 'reverse' the orientation of pre-critical philosophy by showing how the traditional problems of metaphysics can be overcome by supposing that the agreement between reality and the concepts we use to conceive it arises not because our mental concepts have come to passively mirror reality, but because reality must conform to the human mind's active concepts to be conceivable and at all possible for us to experience. Kant thus regarded the basic categories of the human mind as the transcendental "condition of possibility" for any experience.

Politically, Kant was one of the earliest exponents of the idea that perpetual peace could be secured through universal democracy and international cooperation. He believed that this eventually will be the outcome of universal history, although it is not rationally planned. The exact nature of Kant's religious ideas continue to be the subject of especially heated philosophical dispute, with viewpoints ranging from the idea that Kant was an early and radical exponent of atheism who finally exploded the ontological argument for God's existence, to more critical treatments epitomized by Nietzsche who claimed that Kant had "theologian blood" and that Kant was merely a sophisticated apologist for traditional Christian religious belief, writing that "Kant wanted to prove, in a way that would dumbfound the common man, that the common man was right: that was the secret joke of this soul."

In Kant's major work, the Critique of Pure Reason (Kritik der reinen Vernunft, 1781),[10] he attempted to explain the relationship between reason and human experience and to move beyond the failures of traditional philosophy and metaphysics. Kant wanted to put an end to an era of futile and speculative theories of human experience, while resisting the skepticism of thinkers such as David Hume. Kant regarded himself as ending and showing the way beyond the impasse which modern philosophy had led to between rationalists and empiricists, and is widely held to have synthesized these two early modern traditions in his thought.

Kant argued that our experiences are structured by necessary features of our minds. In his view, the mind shapes and structures experience so that, on an abstract level, all human experience shares certain essential structural features. Among other things, Kant believed that the concepts of space and time are integral to all human experience, as are our concepts of cause and effect.[13] One important consequence of this view is that our experience of things is always of the phenomenal world as conveyed by our senses: we do not have direct access to things in themselves, the so-called noumenal world. Kant published other important works on ethics, religion, law, aesthetics, astronomy, and history. These included the Critique of Practical Reason (Kritik der praktischen Vernunft, 1788), the Metaphysics of Morals (Die Metaphysik der Sitten, 1797), which dealt with ethics, and the Critique of Judgment (Kritik der Urteilskraft, 1790), which looks at aesthetics and teleology.

Kant aimed to resolve disputes between empirical and rationalist approaches. The former asserted that all knowledge comes through experience; the latter maintained that reason and innate ideas were prior. Kant argued that experience is purely subjective without first being processed by pure reason. He also said that using reason without applying it to experience only leads to theoretical illusions. The free and proper exercise of reason by the individual was a theme both of the Age of Enlightenment, and of Kant's approaches to the various problems of philosophy. His ideas influenced many thinkers in Germany during his lifetime, and he moved philosophy beyond the debate between the rationalists and empiricists.