绿色智慧城市(3)|对中国城市可持续发展而言，可步行性意义重大
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国开金融、能源创新组织及能源基金会已共同发布《绿色智慧城市开发导则》。我们编撰该系列文章，旨在就中国城市可持续发展相关问题做深入研究。
Lili Pike是能源创新（Energy Innovation）的可持续城市研究员。她从哈佛大学毕业，致力于让人们更加重视可持续的设计原则。
具体的导则虽有顺序，但不存在哪一条更重要的区别。这里讨论的是第六条绿色导则，即非机动化出行。
绿色智慧导则的下载链接：http://energyinnovation.org/what-we-do/urban-sustainability/7118-2/
why walkability is critical to urban sustainability in china
(GREEN GUIDELINE, #6 NON-MOTORIZED TRANSIT)
可步行性对中国城市可持续性的重要意义
（绿色导则 #6 非机动化出行）
Lili Pike, Energy Innovation
丽莉·派克，能源创新
From massive superblocks to seemingly infinite series of ring roads, Chinese cities have increasingly been designed to serve cars. As Chinese people purchase more cars in line with this urban design, the trend is leaving its mark: congestion clogs streets and smog spews from ubiquitous cars, putting urbanites in an all too literal chokehold. In the midst of it all, Yeats’ words ring: “Turning and turning in the widening gyre/[…]/things fall apart; the center cannot hold.”
从大尺度街区，到看上去永无止境的环路建设，中国的城市发展一直都是以服务汽车为核心。随之而来的，则是中国人的汽车购买量与日俱增，这种趋势给城市造成了深刻的影响：街道拥堵，汽车尾气无处不在，让城市居民简直无法呼吸。叶芝的诗正好适用于形容这种城市蔓延：“在向外扩张的旋体上，旋转呀旋转/[...]/一切都离散了；无法维持一个中心。 ”
One of the things falling apart, in the wake of this gasoline gyre, is something far less conspicuous than car culture, yet critical to China’s future: walkability. Urbanization in China has occurred at a breakneck pace over the past few decades and it is only expected to continue, with 250 million(http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/16/world/asia/chinas-great-uprooting-moving-250-million-into-cities.html?pagewanted=all) urbanites to be added by 2030. As cities have expanded to absorb the influx of migrants, developers have built superblocks, half-a-kilometer square, that make walking difficult and unappealing, thereby pushing people towards driving. In a 2013 CCICED study in Beijing, Shanghai, and Shenzhen 82 percent(http://www.cciced.net/zcyj/ztbg/ztzc/201404/P020140409360019746070.pdf) of surveyed residents reported dissatisfaction with the walkability of their neighborhood. Without accessible walking routes and nearby amenities, residents opt for car travel—superblock residents drive four times(http://www.chinastc.org/sites/default/files/CSCP_%20LowCarbonDevelopmentDesignManual_EN.pdf.) as much as residents of traditionally laid-out neighborhoods.
在众多随之离散的事物中，有一件事，虽然没有汽车文化那么引人注意，但对中国的未来至关重要，那就是：可步行性。过去几十年，中国经历了高速城镇化，城市化进程仍将继续下去，截至2030年，中国将新增2.5亿城市居民。为了容纳不断涌入的移居者，城市一直不断扩张，在这个过程中，城市开发者建设了超大街区，街区面积达到0.5平方公里，这种设计让步行变得更加困难，使步行失去了对居民的吸引力，迫使人们选择驾车出行。2013年，中国环境与发展国际合作委员会对北京、上海和深圳进行的研究发现，82%的受访居民，对其所在社区的可步行性不满意。由于缺少便利的步行线路和附近的便利设施，居民不得不选择驾车出行——超级街区的居民驾车出行的次数，是传统布局的社区内居民的四倍。
Meanwhile, in the few remaining historic districts in Chinese cities, the pedestrian world is preserved. Streets are often too narrow for cars to pass so residents take to their bikes or, more simply, their feet to go about their lives. Free from honks and fumes, these neighborhoods contain continuous webs of life. Elderly residents play mahjong on corners, only interrupted by kids darting between doorways—the connected siheyuan serving as their playground. Local groceries and dumpling and chuanr stands are placed at every corner—making these neighborhoods nearly self-sufficient.
而中国城市留下的少数历史街区，步行空间却得到了良好保护。保护区内的街道往往非常狭窄，不适合汽车通行，因此居民日常出行会选择自行车或更简单的步行。这些社区没有汽车噪音和尾气的干扰，生活网络得以延续。老人们在街角打着麻将，孩子们在各家的门口尽情奔跑——连通的四合院便是他们的游乐场。社区随处可见本土的食品杂货店、饺子馆和烤串摊位——使社区几乎可以实现自给自足。
Figure 1 Kids at play in a Beijing hutong. Source: Lili Pike.
图1：孩子们在北京胡同里玩耍。资料来源：丽莉·派克
While this nostalgic nod to historic hutong life has been made before, the street life these traditional neighborhoods contain is increasingly being recognized as an important goal of new developments. Not only does the walkability of these neighborhoods create closer social networks, putting people at the center of urban planning also drives broader environmental, social, and economic benefits.
尽管这种传统的胡同生活带有一种怀旧色彩，但这些社区内包含的街道生活，却越发成为新开发项目的重要目标。这些社区的可步行性不仅形成了更亲密的社交网络，以人为本进行的城市规划，还可带来更大的环境、社会和经济效益。
Despite the dominant trend of sprawling, car-dependent development, this type of thinking is gaining traction at high-levels. The country’s first national urbanization plan(http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/china/2014-03/16/c_133190495.htm), released last year, emphasizes the importance of people-centered, pedestrian friendly urban development. In addition, the 2012 “Guidance for Strengthening the Construction of Urban Non-Motorized Transportation System,” MOHURD, NDRC, and the Ministry of Finance calls for(http://www.efchina.org/Case-Study-en/case-20141222-en) walking and cycling to account for at least 45 percent of journeys made by the public in cities with a population of over 10 million in 2015. While the hutong model will not be applicable given the sheer number of people that cities will need to accommodate, it can impart lessons to new development about what flourishing street life can look like and the importance of giving space to people and not cars.
虽然中国城市的主流仍然是无序扩张、依赖汽车的发展趋势，但这种以人为本的思维正在得到政府高层的认可。中国2014年发布了第一个国家级城镇化规划，强调了以人为本、步行友好的城市发展的重要性。此外，住房城乡建设部、国家发展改革委、财政部三部委2012年发布的《关于加强城市步行和自行车交通系统建设的指导意见》要求，到2015年，市区人口在1000万以上的城市，步行和自行车出行分担率达到45％以上。鉴于城市需要容纳的人口之庞大，胡同模式无法推而广之，但这种模式却可以为新开发项目提供一个契机：了解繁荣的街道生活是什么样子，以及为人而不是汽车提供空间的重要性。
Figure 2 Liuyun Xiaoqu by night: although mostly shuttered for the evening here, the first floor of all buildings house shops, making this a mixed use development. Source: CC Huang.
图2：六运小区夜景：虽然晚上多数店铺已经关闭，但所有建筑一层的商店，令这个小区变成一个混合用途开发项目。资料来源：CC Huang
Enter Liuyun Xiaoqu (六运小区) —a modern neighborhood in Guangzhou. From a distance Liuyun Xiaoqu may seem like any other residential development in today’s China. Apartment buildings of the same hue and build extend row upon row. And yet, walking into the compound, a difference immediately confronts you: a small maze of plant boxes blocks the entrance allowing only pedestrians (and their bikes) in. Once past the maze, pedestrians meet another surprising feature: in Liuyun the first floor of the apartment buildings house a series of shops and restaurants, bucking the development trend of superblocks devoted entirely to either residential or commercial use. This “mixed-use” zoning further enhances the neighborhood’s walkability because residents do not have to venture by car to buy the goods that are literally at their doorsteps.
进入六运小区——广州的一个现代化社区。从远处看，六运小区可能与今天中国的其他住宅项目没有区别。公寓建筑采用相同色调，一排排楼房鳞次栉比。走进这个小区，你便会发现它与其他社区的不同：迷宫般的小型绿化带，堵住了小区的入口，仅供步行（和自行车）通行。穿过绿化带后，行人会看到这个小区另一个令人惊奇的特征：在六运小区，公寓大楼的一层，均改造成了一系列商店和餐厅，这与完全仅供住宅或商业使用的超大街区开发模式形成鲜明对比。这种"混合用途"区域的划分，进一步增强了社区的可步行性，居民无需驾车出行购物，可以说在自家门前便能满足日常生活需求。
Not only do these simple steps taken to block off cars make Liuyun Xiaoqu a much more appealing space for pedestrians, this design also carries major environmental benefits. A recent study in China showed that a more walkable urban form could reduce GHG emissions in China from the transportation sector by 29 percent. This means that the proliferation of neighborhoods like Liuyun Xiaoqu, which inherently promote walking, could make a major difference in China’s contribution to global warming. As CO2 emissions from transportation are predicted to increase another 54 percent by 2020 from 2010 levels, these decisions about basic urban form for new developments will be critical to reducing urban emissions. From a public health perspective, a reduction in car usage would also reduce PM2.5 —which has already been shown to impose grave health risks with prolonged exposure.
这些阻挡汽车的简单措施，不仅使六运小区对行人更有吸引力，也带来了巨大的环境效益。中国最近的一项研究显示，更适宜步行的城市形态，可使交通部门的温室气体排放量减少29%。（Dongquan, He, and et al. “Energy Use of, and CO2 Emissions from China’s Urban Passenger Transportation Sector - Carbon Mitigation Scenarios upon the Transportation Mode Choices.” Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice 53, no. 53–67, July 2013. ） 这意味着六运小区等类似社区的普及，在鼓励步行的同时，将有助于中国在控制全球变暖的行动中发挥更大作用。预计到2020年，中国的交通部门二氧化碳排放量将比2010年的排放水平增加54%，因此，新开发项目基本城市形态的决策将对减少城市排放至关重要。从公共健康的角度，减少汽车使用还有助于减少PM2.5排放——事实证明，长期暴露于PM2.5之中，将造成严重的健康风险。
Figure 3 This map comparing the density of pedestrian routes versus car routes in Liuyun XIaoqu shows why the neighborhood encourages walkability over car usage. Most places are simply more accessible by foot.
图3：该地图将六运小区的步行路线和汽车路线密度进行了对比，对比显示该社区鼓励步行，抑制汽车使用。多数地方通过步行更加便利。
While Liuyun Xiaoqu is only one neighborhood, it provides an important example for how the walkability of historic hutongs can be carried forward into new sustainable development as the country continues to urbanize. As one of the few Chinese locations on the Institute for Transit and Development’s (ITDP) global ranking(https://www.itdp.org/library/standards-and-guides/transit-oriented-development-are-you-on-the-map/best-practices/) of Transit-Oriented Development (TOD), Liuyun is a critical example of how to bring walkability into the modern Chinese context.
虽然六运小区只是一个社区，但它却为城市开发者树立了一个重要的榜样，展示了在中国的城市化进程中，新的可持续开发项目如何借鉴传统胡同的可步行性。六运小区作为交通与发展政策研究所（ITDP）“公交导向发展”全球排名中为数不多的中国社区之一，对现代中国城市如何实现可步行性具有重要的借鉴意义。
Figure 4 Man Walking in Xintiandi. Source: Wikipedia.
图4：新天地的步行者。资料来源：维基百科。
765 miles northeast, a more recent development in Shanghai further amplifies Liuyun Xiaoqu’s lessons. Xintiandi (新天地) is a district in Shanghai that is devoted to pedestrians. Developed in the early 2000s, Xintiandi was designed to draw from the area’s historic roots, maintaining its traditional architecture and cobblestone streets while adding modern shops, restaurants, and nightclubs. Initially, doubts were expressed about this blend of tradition and modern commerce, but Xintiandi has been immensely successful since its 2006 launch. This success confirms the findings from Gehl Architect’s Public Space/Public Life survey in Chongqing that showed 150% more people were spending time in old, small streets than in the new, commercial public spaces, and 640% more people were spending time in traditional Chinese neighborhoods with active, open facades than in streets with closed building fronts. By bringing the vitality of those traditional neighborhoods into a new commercial space, Xintiandi capitalizes on these preferences. The project was so notable that it has become a verb; in developer-speak, “to Xintiandi” now means to create a walkable, human-scale development.
在六运小区东北765英里的地方，上海有一个较为新近的开发项目，将六运小区的经验推而广之。新天地是上海的一块步行街。新天地的开发建设始于2000年代初，旨在充分挖掘本地区的历史传统，在保留历史建筑和街道的同时，增加现代化的店铺、餐厅和夜店。对这种将传统与现代商业相结合的方式，外界起初不乏质疑，但2006年投入使用之后，新天地取得了巨大的成功。新天地的成功佐证了盖尔事务所关于重庆市公共空间/公共生活调研的结果：在旧的小型街道逗留的人数比在新的商业公共空间逗留的人数多出150%，在有活跃的、开放的临界正面的传统中国社区逗留的人数，比在有封闭建筑正面的街道上逗留的人数多出640%。将传统社区的活力融入新的商业空间，这为新天地带来经济上的收益。这个项目取得了巨大的知名度，其项目名称甚至演变为一个动词。现在，开发者会说，让我们“去新天地”（“to Xintiandi”，这里表达“建设”之意。）一个适宜步行的、人性化的开发项目。
Beyond its commercial renown, Xintiandi also exemplifies the importance of urban form in promoting physical exercise, which leads to improved health outcomes. A study done in greater Shanghai shows that people whose commute involves physical activity have a 50 percent reduced risk of developing colon cancer. From a more macro health perspective, a recent study(http://www.citylab.com/design/2014/11/how-urban-design-affects-walkability-and-obesity-in-chinas-booming-cities/382830/) in Shanghai and Hangzhou showed that people living in more walkable neighborhoods have a lower Body-Mass-Index (BMI). This means that urban form has an impact on physical activity and weight.
除了商业上的知名度，新天地也证明了城市形态在促进身体运动进而改善公共健康方面的重要性。对整个上海的一项研究显示，通勤过程中涉及身体活动的居民，患结肠癌的风险降低了50%。（ Hou, Lifang, and Ji Bu-Tian. “Commuting Physical Activity and Risk of Colon Cancer in Shanghai.” American Journal of Epidemi- ology 160, no. 9, 2004. “上海的通勤身体活动与结肠癌风险研究”。《美国流行病学杂志》160，第9期，2004年）从更宏观的健康角度看，最近对上海和杭州进行的一项调查发现，在更适宜步行的社区，居民身高体重指数（BMI）更低。这意味着，城市形态对身体活动和体重均有影响。
While these developments are good examples of how walkability can be implemented in China, future urban developments must take advantage of the opportunity to think through urban form holistically from a pedestrian view point. Like Liuyun Xiaoqu and Xintiandi, car control and appealing public spaces are critical ingredients. However, walkable neighborhoods can only be fully achieved if everything a resident needs is accessible without a car, so mixed-use zoning, as well as good bike and walking paths and high quality public transit are also essential. For pedestrian life to flourish, all of these components must be combined. The Walkability Index(http://www.nrdc.cn/phpcms/userfiles/download/201408/29/NRDC%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%9F%8E%E5%B8%82%E6%AD%A5%E8%A1%8C%E5%8F%8B%E5%A5%BD%E6%80%A7%E8%AF%84%E4%BB%B7%E6%8A%A5%E5%91%8A%EF%BC%88%E9%98%B6%E6%AE%B5%E6%80%A7%E6%8A%A5%E5%91%8A%EF%BC%898.29.pdf) created by the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) is a good starting point for cities to understand where they can improve and how they compare in terms of safe and accessible pedestrian environments.
这些开发项目很好地证明了如何在中国增强城市的可步行性，但未来的城市开发项目必须抓住机会，从行人的角度出发，全面考虑城市形态。例如在六运小区和新天地，汽车控制和有吸引力的公共空间均是这种城市形态的关键组成部分。但要完全实现社区的可步行性，必须保证居民的所有需求均可在不使用汽车的情况下得到满足，因此混合用途区域规划和良好的骑行与步行路线以及高质量的公共交通，同样至关重要。要实现活跃的步行生活，必须综合考虑上述因素。中国的城市可以将美国自然资源保护协会（NRDC）提出的“步行化指数”作为一个良好的起点，深入了解自己需要做出哪些方面的改进，以及在安全便利的步行环境方面与其他城市进行比较。
Although this will certainly require more detailed planning and better management, the benefits of feet taking to streets, rather than cars, are important for China’s environmental, economic, and social prosperity. Walkability can already be found within hutong streets, and in a few new developments across the country like Xintiandi—now as ten New York City’s worth of urban space is to be built in China by 2025(http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/urbanization/preparing_for_urban_billion_in_china), it is ever more critical to approach this growth step by step.
尽管这个过程需要更加详细的规划和更有效的管理，但鼓励步行而非驾车出行所带来的好处，对中国的环境、经济和社会繁荣，都具有重要意义。中国的胡同街道和许多如新天地这样的新开发项目，已经实现了可步行性——至2025年，中国将建成十个纽约市大小的这样的城市空间，因此，循序渐进地推进这一发展进程显得尤为重要。