刊讯｜SSCI 期刊《语言与认知》2023年第1-2期

Language and Cognition

Volume 15, Issues 1-2, 2023

Language and Cognition（SSCI二区，2022 IF：1.8，排名：67/194）2023年第1-2期共刊文17篇。其中，2023年第1期共发文8篇，论文涉及动-宾隐喻、一语习得中的隐喻、隐喻与习语、情绪词、手语话语层级、字母大小写与语义加工、对话语义和多模态等。2023年第2期共发文9篇，论文涉及时空映射关系、发音象似、双语者的词汇组织、影响单词视觉加工的因素、语音象征、二语习得词汇加工的年龄问题、隐喻与转喻分析、双语者的数词表征等。欢迎转发扩散！

往期推荐：

目录

Issue 1

■ When sequence matters: the processing of contextually biased German verb–object metaphors, by Camilo R. Ronderos, Ernesto Guerra, Pia Knoeferle, Pages 1-28.

■ Categorising emotion words: the influence of response options, by Barbra Zupan, Lynn Dempsey, Katelyn Hartwell, Pages 29-52.

■ Mapping the body to the discourse hierarchy in sign language emergence, by Svetlana Dachkovsky, Rose Stamp, Wendy Sandler, Pages 53-85.

■ Metonymic relations underlying the one-word utterances of Afrikaans-speaking infants and toddlers, by Nina Brink, Pages 86-105.

■ The effect of letter-case type on the semantic processing of words and sentences during attentive and mind-wandering states, by Nicolas Laham, Craig Leth-Steensen, Pages 106-130.

■Working memory modulates the effect of music on word learning, by Jia Hoong Ong, Alice H. D. Chan, Pages 131-147.

■ Leading voices: dialogue semantics, cognitive science and the polyphonic structure of multimodal interaction, by Andy Lücking, Jonathan Ginzburg, Pages 148-172.

■ Metaphors and culturally unique idioms of eating and drinking in Mongolian, by Tana Wu, Pages 173-214.

Issue 2

■ Big-Five model of personality and word formation: role of open-mindedness in semantic transparency and economy of expression, by Pavol Kačmár, Lívia Körtvélyessy, Pages 217-244.

■ Mapping of individual time units in horizontal space, by Anastasia Malyshevskaya, Federico Gallo, Christoph Scheepers, Yury Shtyrov, Andriy Myachykov, Pages 245-265.

■ Vocal iconicity in nominal classification, by Niklas Erben Johansson, Sandra Cronhamn, Pages 266-291.

■ An event-related potential study of cross-modal translation recognition in Chinese–English bilinguals: the role of cross-linguistic orthography and phonology,  by Er-Hu Zhang, Jiaxin Li, Defeng Li, Yiqiang Chen, Xin-Dong Zhang, Xinyi Wang, Hong-Wen Cao, Pages 292-313.

■ Individual differences in visual word recognition: the role of epistemically unwarranted beliefs on affective processing and signal detection, by Daniel Huete-Pérez, Pilar Ferré, Pages 314-336.

■ Valence sound symbolism across language families: a comparison between Japanese and German, by Anita Körner, Ralf Rummer, Pages 337-354.

■ The age of acquisition effect in processing second language words and its relationship with the age of acquisition of the first language, by Jue Wang, Lijuan Liang, Baoguo Chen, Pages 355-376.

■ A blending analysis of metaphors and metonymies used to depict the deal of the century by Jordanian cartoonists, by Aseel Zibin, Abdel Rahman Mitib Altakhaineh, Pages 377-404.

■ Representations of numerals in Tibetan–Mandarin bilinguals, by Haibin Han, Ning An, Xinlin Zhou, Zhanling Cui, Pages 405-425.

摘要

When sequence matters: the processing of contextually biased German verb–object metaphors

Camilo R. Ronderos, Department of Philosophy, Classics, History of Art and Ideas, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway & Institut für deutsche Sprache und Linguistik, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany

Ernesto Guerra, Center for Advanced Research in Education, Institute of Education, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile

Pia Knoeferle, Institut für deutsche Sprache und Linguistik, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany, Einstein Center for Neurosciences Berlin, Berlin, Germany & Berlin School of Mind and Brain, Berlin, Germany

Abstract Several studies have investigated the comprehension of decontextualized English nominal metaphors. However, not much is known about how contextualized, non-nominal, non-English metaphors are processed, and how this might inform existing theories of metaphor comprehension. In the current work, we investigate the effects of context and of sequential order for an under-studied type of construction: German verb–object metaphors. In two visual-world, eye-tracking experiments, we manipulated whether a discourse context biased a spoken target utterance toward a metaphoric or a literal interpretation. We also manipulated the order of verb and object in the target utterances (e.g., Stefan interviewt eine Hyäne, ‘Stefan interviews a hyena’, verb→object; and Stefan wird eine Hyäne interviewen, ‘Stefan will a hyena interview’, object→verb). Experiment 1 shows that contextual cues interacted with sequential order, mediating the processing of verb–object metaphors: When the context biased toward a metaphoric interpretation, participants readily understood the object metaphorically for the verb→object sequence, whereas they likely first understood it literally for the object→verb sequence. Crucially, no such effect of sequential order was found when context biased toward a literal interpretation. Experiment 2 suggests that differences in processing found in Experiment 1 were brought on by the interaction of discourse context and sequential order and not by sequential order alone. We propose ways in which existing theoretical views could be extended to account for these findings. Overall, our study shows the importance of context during figurative language comprehension and highlights the need to test the predictions of metaphor theories on non-English and non-nominal metaphors.

Key words metaphor processing, visual-world eye-tracking, experimental pragmatics, figurative language

Categorising emotion words: the influence of response options

Barbra Zupan, College of Health Sciences, School of Medical and Applied Sciences, Central Queensland University, Bruce Highway, Rockhampton, Queensland, Australia

Lynn Dempsey, Department of Applied Linguistics, Brock University, 1812 Sir Isaac Brock Way, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada

Katelyn Hartwell, College of Health Sciences, School of Medical and Applied Sciences, Central Queensland University, Bruce Highway, Rockhampton, Queensland, Australia

Abstract Words used to describe emotion are influenced by experience, context and culture; nevertheless, research studies often constrain participant response options. We explored the influence of response options on how people conceptualise emotion words in two cross-sectional studies. In Study 1 participants rated the degree to which a large set of emotion words (n = 497) fit five basic emotion categories – Happy, Sad, Angry, Fearful, Neutral. Twenty-four words that fit well within these categories were included in Study 2. In Study 2 response options were expanded to include two additional basic emotions (Disgust, Joy), and six complex emotions (Amusement, Anxiety, Contentment, Irritated, Pride, Relief). Only half of the Study 1 words were categorised into the same emotion categories in Study 2. An increase in diversity of ratings for both positive and negative valenced words suggested overlaps in people’s conceptualisations of emotion words. Results suggest potential benefits of providing research participants complex emotion categories of varying intensity, which may better reflect people’s nuanced conceptualisations of emotion. Future research exploring varied response options may provide further insight into how people categorise and differentiate emotion words.

Key words basic emotions, complex emotions, response options, categorisation, conceptualisation

Mapping the body to the discourse hierarchy in sign language emergence

Svetlana Dachkovsky, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel & Gordon College of Education, Haifa, Israel

Rose Stamp, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel

Wendy Sandler, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel

Abstract A common feature of discourse coherence is hierarchical organization: more generally, central relations (characterizing the overall topic or goal) dominate complementary or modifying relations. In this hierarchy, higher levels tend to be marked by stronger prosodic cues than lower levels. This study seeks to understand how such a system emerges in human communication – what is present at the outset, and what takes time to develop. Specifically, we investigate whether the conceptualization of hierarchical organization precedes overt linguistic structuring, and whether distinct types and strengths of prosodic marking at different hierarchical levels can be discerned in the process of emergence. The only empirical evidence for such an investigation comes from sign languages, because they can arise de novo at any time. Sign languages offer the additional advantage of directly linking instantiations of linguistic structure to articulations of different visually perceived bodily articulators. Our study of a young sign language, Israeli Sign Language (ISL), finds that conceptual hierarchical structuring of discourse arises very early. However, the organization of bodily articulators to linguistically mark hierarchical information takes time to emerge: Younger ISL signers use smaller, less salient articulators at lower levels of the hierarchy compared to older signers.

Key words Rhetorical Structure Theory, Israeli Sign Language, discourse hierarchy, conceptual hierarchy, language emergence

Metonymic relations underlying the one-word utterances of Afrikaans-speaking infants and toddlers

Nina Brink, North-West University, School of Languages, Potchefstroom, South Africa

Abstract Children’s processing and comprehension of metonymy have received little attention in the developmental literature, which has mainly focused on children’s acquisition of metaphor abilities. However, it has been found that metonymy production and comprehension precede metaphor production and comprehension (Falkum et al., 2017; Nerlich et al., 1999; Pérez-Hernández & Duvignau, 2016; Runblad & Annaz, 2010). Nerlich et al. (1999) suggest that metonymic relations are exploited in overextensions produced by children up to age 2;5 and call these “compelled metonymic overextensions”. At this very early age, a child’s vocabulary is still relatively small, and this compels them to extend already known words to cope with their increasing communicative needs. These overextensions are, however, in most cases not random, as some type of associative relation (e.g., CAUSE–EFFECT, OBJECT–ACT, CONTAINER–CONTENT, etc.) between the concepts referred to can be identified. This study focuses on the metonymic relations exploited by 18 Afrikaans-speaking infants and toddlers (between the ages of 0;6 and 2;0) in their early overextensions. The metonymic relations as described by Norrick (1981) as well as Radden and Kövecses (1999) are employed in the analysis. A total of 207 out of 1371 one-word utterances were identified as compelled metonymic overextensions and 11 types of metonymic relations could be identified as underlying these utterances. This study illustrates that the metonymic relations identified in such young children’s early language provide insight and understanding into how they categorise and associate various concepts with each other.

Key words Afrikaans, compelled metonymic overextension, conceptualisation, child language, first language acquisition, metonymic relation, metonymy, one-word utterance

The effect of letter-case type on the semantic processing of words and sentences during attentive and mind-wandering states

Nicolas Laham, Craig Leth-Steensen, Department of Psychology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario K1S 5B6, Canada

Abstract The task of finding a case type that, on average, enhances the processing of verbal material has yielded mixed results in the literature. This study tackled this issue with an eye to the issue of processing textual information on road signs and the additional consideration of readers’ attentive states. Participants (n = 104) completed three experiments, the first two of which made use of both short (i.e., attentive state) and long (i.e., nonattentive or mind-wandering state) inter-trial intervals (ITIs). Experiment I consisted of a living versus non-living category-decision task involving the presentation of single words. Experiment II consisted of a sensical versus nonsensical sentence-judgment task. Experiment III consisted of a recognition memory task for words presented during the category-decision task. No significant difference in letter-case-type effectiveness was found for either the semantic categorization of or memory for single words. On the other hand, sensical sentences were correctly judged more quickly in lower case (or, more precisely, sentence case with the first letter of the first word capitalized). Such results point to either a more fluent processing of or enhanced conceptual resonance for sentences presented in lower case.

Key words letter case, mind wandering, semantic classification, sentence processing, memory

Working memory modulates the effect of music on word learning

Jia Hoong Ong, Linguistics & Multilingual Studies, School of Humanities, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore & School of Psychology and Clinical Language Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, United Kingdom

Alice H. D. Chan, Linguistics & Multilingual Studies, School of Humanities, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

Abstract While anecdotal evidence suggests that music may facilitate verbal memory, empirical evidence for this is less clear. Here, we examined whether learners’ characteristics such as age, working memory (WM), and musical training may influence the effect of music on word learning. Young and older adults learned novel word-referent mappings presented in three music conditions (spoken in the presence of background music, sung in-key, and sung out-of-key) and a control condition (spoken in quiet) and their performance was assessed immediately after learning. We found that whereas age and, to an extent, musical training had a general effect on word learning, WM modulated the effect of music: performance was worse in the music conditions relative to the control condition for learners with lower WM whereas the opposite pattern was observed for those with higher WM. Our results thus highlight the importance of considering individual characteristics in determining the effect of music on verbal memory.

Key words word learning, music, song, working memory, individual differences

Leading voices: dialogue semantics, cognitive science and the polyphonic structure of multimodal interaction

Andy Lücking, Laboratoire de Linguistique Formelle (LLF), Université Paris Cité, CNRS – UMR 7110, Paris, France & Text Technology Lab, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany

Jonathan Ginzburg, Laboratoire de Linguistique Formelle (LLF), Université Paris Cité, CNRS – UMR 7110, Paris, France

Abstract The neurocognition of multimodal interaction – the embedded, embodied, predictive processing of vocal and non-vocal communicative behaviour – has developed into an important subfield of cognitive science. It leaves a glaring lacuna, however, namely the dearth of a precise investigation of the meanings of the verbal and non-verbal communication signals that constitute multimodal interaction. Cognitively construable dialogue semantics provides a detailed and context-aware notion of meaning, and thereby contributes content-based identity conditions needed for distinguishing syntactically or form-based defined multimodal constituents. We exemplify this by means of two novel empirical examples: dissociated uses of negative polarity utterances and head shaking, and attentional clarification requests addressing speaker/hearer roles. On this view, interlocutors are described as co-active agents, thereby motivating a replacement of sequential turn organisation as a basic organising principle with notions of leading and accompanying voices. The Multimodal Serialisation Hypothesis is formulated: multimodal natural language processing is driven in part by a notion of vertical relevance – relevance of utterances occurring simultaneously – which we suggest supervenes on sequential (‘horizontal’) relevance – relevance of utterances succeeding each other temporally.

Key words dialogue semantics, multimodal interaction, turn taking, overlap, clarification requests

Metaphors and culturally unique idioms of eating and drinking in Mongolian

Tana Wu, School of Linguistic Sciences and Arts, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, China

Abstract This paper investigates the cognitive mechanisms underlying eating and drinking metaphors in Mongolian and discusses complex linguistic features of some culturally unique idioms relating to id- ‘eat’ and uu- ‘drink’, which are interpreted from a sociocultural perspective, along with the help of world knowledge. Metaphorical extensions of id- and uu- fall into three subcategories: (1) agent-oriented extensions, highlighting the consumer’s role in the source domain of eating and drinking; (2) patient-oriented extensions, focusing on destructive effects on the patient in the source domain; (3) extensions involving both agent and patient orientations, describing the agent’s sensation and “destruction” of the patient at the same time. Based on the Mongolian Web Corpus (mnWac16) and an extensive online dictionary (mongoltoli.mn), it is found that patient-oriented extensions tend to be more connected with EAT verbs in Mongolian, denoting a range of extensions like overcoming of the patient, spending material wealth, psychological torment or destruction, corrosion caused by external factors, etc., while agent-oriented extensions are more likely to involve DRINK verbs, denoting ‘smoking’, receiving material wealth (e.g., earning money) and absorption of such liquids as ink or oil. Overall, id- has a broader extension than uu-, and there are some overlaps involving both agent and patient orientations in terms of living on material wealth and physical exploitation. Some common usages pertaining to metaphorical extensions of consumption verbs are found cross-linguistically.

Key words metaphor, id- ‘eat’, uu- ‘drink’, Mongolian, idioms

Big-Five model of personality and word formation: role of open-mindedness in semantic transparency and economy of expression

Pavol Kačmár, Department of Psychology, Faculty of Arts, Pavol Jozef Šafárik University in Košice, Košice, Slovakia

Lívia Körtvélyessy, Department of British and American Studies, Faculty of Arts, Pavol Jozef Šafárik University in Košice, Košice, Slovakia

Abstract As word formation can be conceptualized as an act of creativity with considerable space for differences among speakers, we present pilot research aimed at the examination of the role of Big-Five personality domains in the formation of new complex words. The sample consisted of 197 participants who underwent a word formation test and a personality assessment via The Next Big-Five Inventory. The results indicate that when ordinal regression is conducted with an aim of accounting for age and gender, open-mindedness is shown as a potentially important predictor – it positively predicted economy of expression and negatively predicted semantic transparency. Furthermore, a more nuanced approach differentiating three facets of open-mindedness shows that creative imagination predicted semantic transparency positively while esthetic sensitivity predicts semantic transparency negatively (the reverse is true for the economy of expression). These findings provide a promising starting point for future research.

Key words word formationm, onomasiological approach, semantic transparency, economy of expression, Big-Five model, open-mindedness/openness to experience

Mapping of individual time units in horizontal space

Anastasia Malyshevskaya, Centre for Cognition and Decision Making, Institute for Cognitive Neuroscience, HSE University, Moscow, Russia & Potsdam Embodied Cognition Group, Cognitive Sciences, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany

Federico Gallo, Centre for Cognition and Decision Making, Institute for Cognitive Neuroscience, HSE University, Moscow, Russia & Centre for Neurolinguistics and Psycholinguistics (CNPL), Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy

Christoph Scheepers, School of Neuroscience and Psychology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom

Yury Shtyrov, Centre for Cognition and Decision Making, Institute for Cognitive Neuroscience, HSE University, Moscow, Russia & Center of Functionally Integrative Neuroscience (CFIN), Institute for Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark

Andriy Myachykov, Centre for Cognition and Decision Making, Institute for Cognitive Neuroscience, HSE University, Moscow, Russia & Department of Psychology, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom

Abstract We often refer to space when we talk about time. To support this, studies show that we tend to associate the past with the left and the future with the right, space. However, there is little research that compares the spatial mapping of individual time units within the same methodological framework. Here, we used the same line-bisection paradigm to study horizontal spatial biases in various individual time units (i.e., hours, days, and months). Fifty-four adults processed temporal words and indicated their location on a horizontal line representing a time interval via a mouse click. Each word corresponded to one of the three conditions: left, right, or central position on the line. Our results show a reaction-time facilitation effect for hour and day units in congruent conditions (e.g., left semantic bias + left position on the line). Also, processing hour units shifted the response coordinates in the direction of the presumed spatial bias. Finally, the congruent combination of visual and semantic biases led to a shift in manual responses in the corresponding direction for all time units. We conclude that while left-to-right mapping of time concepts is relatively universal, the horizontal mapping is stronger for hours as compared with days and months.

Key words time words, mental time line, line bisection, spatial bias

Vocal iconicity in nominal classification

Niklas Erben Johansson, Sandra Cronhamn, Division of General Linguistics, Center for Language and Literature, Lund University, Lund, Sweden

Abstract While recent years have seen a substantial increase of studies investigating vocal iconicity in the lexicon of spoken languages, its presence in grammatical structures is poorly understood. This study investigates the presence of vocal iconicity in nominal classification systems by collecting nominal classification devices from the two main system types: 210 non-agreeing languages (126 families) and 151 agreeing languages (123 families). To detect overrepresentations of sound types in class meanings, the nominal classification devices were grouped according to comparable semantic categories, transcribed using comparable phonetic system, and analyzed through Bayesian mixed models. The strongest results were found for associations between nominal classification devices denoting FLAT and low, front, unrounded vowels, along with several weak associations relating to shape/size/quantity, function, humanness/animacy, and sex. These associations mostly correlate with previous vocal iconicity findings, but crucially, the involved nominal classification devices are mostly semantically typical for non-agreeing, for example, classifier, systems. These findings were attributed to structural differences between nominal classification system types, which result from grammaticalization processes, for example, phonetic erosion and semantic bleaching. Thus, increased formal predictability through grammatical agreement comes at a cost of semantic transparency which, in turn, dismantles the semantic prerequisites needed for vocal iconic associations to be operational.

Key words vocal iconicity, nominal classification, grammaticalization, phonological typology, semantic typology

An event-related potential study of cross-modal translation recognition in Chinese–English bilinguals: the role of cross-linguistic orthography and phonology

Er-Hu Zhang, Jiaxin Li, Research Center for Language, Cognition and Language Application, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China

Defeng Li, Yiqiang Chen, Centre for Studies of Translation, Interpreting and Cognition, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau SAR, China

Xin-Dong Zhang, Xinyi Wang, Research Center for Language, Cognition and Language Application, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China

Hong-Wen Cao, Research Center for Language, Cognition and Language Application, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China & Centre for Studies of Translation, Interpreting and Cognition, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau SAR, China

Abstract Extensive evidence has demonstrated that bilinguals non-selectively activate lexicons of both languages when reading or hearing words in one language. Here, we further investigated the electrophysiological roles of cross-linguistic orthography and phonology in the processing of L2 spoken words in unbalanced Chinese (L1)–English (L2) bilinguals in a cross-modal situation. Relative to unrelated control, the recognition of auditory L2 words showed behavioral interference effects when paired with orthographic or phonological neighbors of the correct translations of L2 words. Moreover, the lexical effects were also exhibited in the electrophysiological data, as reflected by marginally less positive late positive component (500–800 ms) amplitudes in the frontal region. Importantly, the orthographic rather than phonological translation neighbor condition elicited less negative N400 (300–500 ms) amplitudes in the parietal–occipital regions, suggesting that this orthographic translation neighbor condition facilitated the co-activation of spoken L2 words. Taken together, these findings indicate that cross-linguistic orthographic and phonological activation have different temporal dynamics with both bottom-up parallel cross-linguistic activation and the top-down inhibitory control mechanism governing the two-language lexical organization in L2 spoken word recognition.

Key words bilinguals, cross-modal, orthography and phonology, L2 spoken word recognition

Individual differences in visual word recognition: the role of epistemically unwarranted beliefs on affective processing and signal detection

Daniel Huete-Pérez, Pilar Ferré, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Department of Psychology, Research Center for Behavior Assessment (CRAMC), Tarragona, Spain

Abstract Previous studies have brought conflicting results regarding the effects of valence and arousal in visual word processing. Some authors have pointed to participants’ individual differences as one of the possible explanations for these inconsistencies. The main aim of the present research was to examine whether participants’ individual differences in the level of epistemically unwarranted beliefs (EUB) contribute to these conflicting results. Therefore, participants who varied in their level of paranormal, pseudoscientific and conspiracy beliefs (assessed by self-report measures) performed a lexical decision task (LDT) and a recognition memory task. Linear mixed-effects models over LDT response times revealed that the effects of words’ emotional content (both valence and arousal) were modulated by the degree of individuals’ EUB. In addition, signal detection theory analyses showed that in the recognition task (but not in the LDT) response bias became more liberal as individuals’ EUB increased. These patterns of effects were not general to all EUB instances. The obtained results highlight the need to consider participants’ individual differences in affective word processing and signal detection. In addition, this study reveals some basic psychological mechanisms that would underlie EUB, a fact that has both theoretical and applied relevance.

Key words visual word recognition, emotional processing, paranormal beliefs, pseudoscientific beliefs, conspiracy beliefs, lexical decision task, recognition memory task

Valence sound symbolism across language families: a comparison between Japanese and German

Anita Körner, Ralf Rummer, Department of Psychology, University of Kassel, Kassel, Germany

Abstract Vowels are associated with valence, so that words containing /i/ (as in English meet) compared with /o/ (as in French rose) are typically judged to match positively valenced persons and objects. As yet, valence sound symbolism has been mainly observed for Indo-European languages. The present research extends this to a comparison of Japanese-speaking and German-speaking participants. Participants invented pseudo-words as names for faces with different emotional expressions (happy vs. neutral vs. sad vs. angry). For both Japanese-speaking and German-speaking participants, vowel usage depended on emotional valence. The vowel I was used more for positive (vs. other) expressions, whereas O and U were used less for positive (vs. other) expressions. A was associated with positive emotional valence for Japanese-speaking but not German-speaking participants. In sum, emotional valence associations of I (vs. rounded vowels) were similar in German and Japanese, suggesting that sound symbolism for emotional valence is not language specific.

Key words sound symbolism, iconicity, valence, articulation, valence sound symbolism

The age of acquisition effect in processing second language words and its relationship with the age of acquisition of the first language

Jue Wang, Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China

Lijuan Liang, Bilingual Cognition and Development Lab, Center for Linguistics and Applied Linguistics, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, Guangzhou 510420, China

Baoguo Chen, Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China

Abstract The present study investigated the age of acquisition (AoA) effect in processing second language (L2) words and how it is related to the AoA of the corresponding first language (L1) words. We adopted a lexical decision task in three experiments. The filler words were orthographically illegal in Experiment 1 to elicit more word form processing, while Experiment 2 used legal fillers to shift the bias toward semantic processing. In Experiment 3, we used a larger amount of stimuli containing more longer words with legal fillers. Our results showed that L2 AoA has a weak effect at the orthographical processing level and a stable effect at the semantic processing level. The L1 AoA modulates the L2 AoA effect at the semantic processing level, which is more likely to appear in long words. These results suggest that it is important to take bilingual representation and activation into consideration to explain the L2 AoA effect.

Key words age of acquisition, second language, first language, word processing, word length

A blending analysis of metaphors and metonymies used to depict the deal of the century by Jordanian cartoonists

Aseel Zibin, Abdel Rahman Mitib Altakhaineh, Department of English Language and Literature, University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan

Abstract This study analyzes 30 cartoons depicting THE DEAL OF THE CENTURY as envisaged by two Jordanian cartoonists. Conceptual Blending Theory (Fauconnier and Turner [2008, Cambridge handbook of metaphor and thought, Cambridge University Press, 53–66]) and Multimodal Metaphor Theory (Forceville, 2008) are adopted as theoretical frameworks. The results reveal that the target domain THE DEAL OF THE CENTURY was conceptualized mainly through layered metaphors that have metonymic basis and event metaphors/allegories. Five groups were identified: OBJECT or a situation involving OBJECTS, situations involving HUMANS/HYBRIDS of HUMANS and OBJECTS, an ANIMAL or situation involving ANIMAL, hybrids of WEAPONS and HUMANS, and event metaphors used to build a story/allegory. The results demonstrate that the most widely used configuration to construe the metaphors was cross-modal of the type pictorial source–verbal target in line with Lan and Zuo (2016, Metaphor and the Social World 6, 20–51). This was probably due to the greater conceptual density and concreteness of visual representation as the target is better captured verbally because of its abstractness. In contrast, the source domains were mainly concrete and thus perceivable pictorially rather than verbally. The study mainly demonstrates the effect that metaphor and metonymy found in political cartoons can have on the perception of the target domain by the audience and by extension their attitude toward it.

Key words Cognitive semantics, visual metaphor, metonymy, political cartoons

Representations of numerals in Tibetan–Mandarin bilinguals

Haibin Han, Ning An, College of Education, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, China

Xinlin Zhou, State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China, Advanced Innovation Center for Future Education, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, ChinaSiegler Center for Innovative Learning, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China & Center for Brain and Mathematical Learning, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China

Zhanling Cui, College of Education, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, China

Abstract Adopting a cross-language long-term repetition-priming paradigm, the current study systematically investigated number representation in Tibetan–Mandarin bilinguals. The study focused on three types of numerals: Arabic digits, Tibetan numerals, and Mandarin numerals. Experiment 1 examined lexical representation; participants performed a lexical decision task in the cross-language repetition-priming paradigm. Experiment 2 used a parity judgment task to examine conceptual representation. In both experiments, if the presentation of the numerals during the learning phase facilitated responses to their translation equivalents in the testing phase, it would indicate that they activate each other (i.e., a shared representation). Results showed that the presentation of Tibetan or Mandarin numerals did not facilitate subsequent responses to the Arabic digit equivalent. No cross-language repetition-priming effect between Tibetan and Mandarin numerals was found in the lexical decision task, indicating that Arabic digits, Tibetan number words, and Mandarin number words are stored separately at the lexical level. At the conceptual level, the results were quite the opposite, suggesting that these three types of numerals share a common representation. To sum up, the results imply that bilinguals’ number representation is similar to bilinguals’ language representation, providing a better understanding of number representation in bilinguals from a linguistic perspective.

Key words Tibetan–Mandarin bilingual, numeral representation, conceptual level, lexical level, cross-language repetition-priming paradigm

期刊简介

Language and Cognition is a venue for the publication of high-quality empirical research focusing on the interface between language and cognition. It is open to research from the full range of subject disciplines, theoretical backgrounds, and analytical frameworks that populate linguistics and the cognitive sciences. We aim to cover a wide range of interdisciplinary research focused on theoretical issues surrounding the language system.

《语言与认知》专注于语言和认知之间的界面。它对来自语言学和认知科学的所有学科、理论背景和分析框架的研究都是开放的。我们的目标是涵盖广泛的跨学科研究，重点是围绕语言系统的理论问题。

In addition to the traditional areas of cognitive linguistics (e.g., construction grammar, metaphor theory, linguistic relativity, sensorimotor simulation), we especially welcome research which considers theoretical linguistic questions within a broader cognitive context. We also strongly encourage submissions investigating iconicity, multimodality, signed languages, gesture, or language evolution. We generally do not consider applied work, such as classroom based research, or studies focused on education, language aptitude or language teaching.

除了认知语言学的传统领域(如结构语法、隐喻理论、语言相对论、感觉运动模拟)，我们特别欢迎在更广泛的认知背景下考虑理论语言学问题的研究。我们也强烈鼓励提交研究象似性、多模态、手语、手势或语言进化的作品。我们通常不考虑应用工作，例如基于课堂的研究，或专注于教育、语言能力或语言教学的研究。

官网地址：

https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/language-and-cognition

本文来源：Language and Cognition官网

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