Japan Series 日本系列 18 | Ancient China-Japan Relationship 古代日中关系
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The ancient China-Japan relationship has a long history. In a certain period of time, the exchanges of politics, religion, culture and custom between the two countries were very intense. China, an ancient and more developed country at the time, transmitted a long series of ideas to Japan (sometimes indirectly through South Korea), such as rice planting, writing, Buddhism, the central government model, civil service examination, temple architecture, clothing, art, literature, music and eating habits. Trade relations far surpass cultural and diplomatic relations. Japan later developed its own unique cultural path since the 9th century AD.
古代中日关系源远流长，有一段时间两国政治、宗教、文化习俗的交流十分激烈。作为当时更发达且比日本还古老的国家，中国向日本（有时通过韩国间接地）传递了一长串的思想，这些思想包括水稻种植、写作、佛教、中央政府模式、公务员考试、寺庙建筑、服装、艺术、文学、音乐和饮食习惯。贸易关系大大超过了文化和外交关系，日本从公元9世纪开始发展自己独特的文化道路。
At a political level, Japan began its first attempts at international relations (kokusai kankei) by the end of the Yayoi Period (c. 300 BCE or earlier to c. 250 CE). According to the c. 82 CE Han Shu ('History of Han'), envoys and tribute were sent to the Chinese commanderies in northern Korea by the Wa, as the small states in southern and western Japan was then known, the most important of which was Yamato. This is the earliest textual reference to Japan. The first tribute missions to China are recorded in 57 and 107 CE. One Japanese ruler known to have sent embassies to Chinese territory (238, 243, and c. 248 CE) and the most famous figure of the period was Queen Himiko (r. c. 189-248 CE). During the subsequent Kofun Period (c. 250 CE - 538 CE) envoys continued to be sent to China: in 425 CE, 478 CE and then eleven more up to 502 CE. Yamato Japan was slowly establishing an international diplomatic presence.
在政治上，日本在Yayoi时期（约公元前300年或更早至公元前250年）结束前，开始了首次尝试国际关系（kokusai kankei）。根据公元82年的《汉书》，由于当时日本南部和西部的小国联合会刚刚成立，其中最重要的是山本，佤邦派使节和贡品到中国在朝鲜的突击队。这是对日本最早的文本参考。第一次来华进贡是在公元57年和107年。众所周知，有一位日本统治者曾向中国领土派遣大使馆（公元前238年、243年和248年），这一时期最著名的人物是姬子皇后（公元前189-248年）。在随后的科芬时期（约公元前250年-公元前538年），使节继续被派往中国：公元前425年，公元前478年，直到公元前502年共有11名使节被派遣。这时候是日本正在慢慢建立国际外交关系。
Asuka Period & Buddhism 飞鸟时代与 佛教
The Asuka Period (538-710 CE) saw a stepping up of cultural exchange with the introduction of laws and penal codes based on those in China, the creation of a permanent capital city, and the nationalisation of land. There was also the introduction of Buddhism to Japan sometime in the 6th century CE, traditionally in 552 CE. It was actually introduced by a Korean monk but was seen as a Chinese faith and was officially adopted by Emperor Yomei (r. 585-587 CE). Buddhism reinforced the idea of a layered society with different levels of social status, with the emperor very much at the top and protected by the Four Guardian Kings of Buddhist law. The aristocracy could also conveniently claim that they enjoyed their privileged position in society because they had accumulated merit in a previous life.
飞鸟时期（公元538-710年），随着中国法律和刑法的出台，一个永久性的首都城市的建立，以及土地的国有化，文化交流的步伐加快。公元前6世纪，佛教传入日本，传统上是公元552年。它实际上是由一位韩国僧侣介绍的，但被视为一种中国信仰，并被皇帝尤美（r.585-587ce）正式采用。佛教强化了等级社会的观念，社会地位不同，皇帝居于首位，受佛教四大护法的保护。贵族们也可以顺理成章地宣称，他们在社会上享有特权地位，因为他们在前世积累了功绩。
Japan's acceptance of Buddhism will be favored by the more advanced surrounding cultures of South Korea and China, and enhance Japan's reputation as a rising country of East Asian civilization. For the same reason, Chinese court etiquette, official etiquette, tea drinking etiquette and eating habits were also copied. Once officially accepted, monks, scholars and students were regularly sent to China to learn more about Buddhism and bring these knowledges, along with art and sometimes relics, back for the benefit of the Japanese people.
日本对佛教的接受将受到韩国和中国更先进的周边文化的青睐，并提升日本作为东亚文明崛起国家的声誉。用同样的原因，中国的宫廷礼仪、官职礼仪、饮茶礼仪和饮食习惯也被抄袭。僧侣、学者和学生一经正式接受，就定期被派往中国，更深入地学习佛教教义，并把这些知识连同艺术甚至有时还有遗物带回，造福日本人民。
Buddhism continued to develop as a belief in India and China, and new sects continued to develop. Eventually, through monks studying abroad, Buddhism came to Japan. The two most famous scholars and monks are Kukai (774-835 A.D.) and guru (767-822 A.D.), who founded Shingon and Tendai respectively. Another important monk was Ennin (793-864 A.D.), who studied esoteric Buddhism in China for nine years and brought these new ideas, original texts, mandalas and ritual objects back to Japan.
佛教作为一种信仰在印度和中国继续发展，新的教派继续发展。最终，佛教通过僧侣留学来到日本。最著名的两位学者和僧侣是古凯（公元774-835年）和古鲁（公元767-822年），他们分别创立了神道教和天道教。另一位重要的僧侣是恩宁（公元793-864年），他在中国研究密宗九年，并将这些新思想、原始文本、曼陀罗和仪式物品带回日本。
Prince Shotoku was a great promoter of ties with China and was a keen advocate of all things Chinese from chopsticks to Buddhism. His famous Seventeen Article Constitution of 604 CE was heavily influenced by Taoist, Confucian, and Buddhist ideas. Shotoku also sent official embassies to the Sui court in China from c. 607 CE and then throughout the 7th century CE. There would be 19 state-sponsored missions sent to China between 607 and 839 CE. The missions were led by a high-ranked court official who was accompanied by councillors, scholars, monks, artists, doctors, musicians, diviners, scribers, and interpreters. Thus, each embassy could include several hundred people. The important officials had their expenses met by their hosts. 'Tribute' was given and gifts were received in return, especially paintings and books.
圣德太子是一个极大的促进与中国的关系，是一个喜欢中国的东西从筷子到佛教的倡导者。他著名的公元604年十七条宪法深受道教、儒家和佛教思想的影响。从公元前607年到公元前7世纪，肖托库还向中国隋朝派遣了官方大使馆。在公元607年至839年间，将有19个国家赞助的使团被派往中国。代表团由一名高级法院官员领导，由议员、学者、僧侣、艺术家、医生、音乐家、占卜师、抄写员和翻译陪同。因此，每个大使馆可以容纳几百人。重要官员的开支由东道主承担人们送上贡品，收到礼物作为回报，尤其是绘画和书籍。
Artists copy the works they can take home as references, musicians learn from famous teachers and scholars (usually monks) under the leadership of famous religious masters. Doctors gained the art of acupuncture, massage, massage and exorcism. Students will take longer than others to return to the main embassy. After several years of research, in most cases, their costs were also paid by the Chinese government. Those who do spend time studying in China often get high-level positions when they return to Japan, becoming government advisers or heads of institutions such as Nara University, where they teach Confucian principles and Chinese language courses. Literature and law were the most popular. Monks will continue to establish and lead their own Buddhist denominations, which became very popular because their new knowledge allowed them to usurp the status of existing schools and the Order.
艺术家们复制了他们可以带回家的作品作为参考作品，音乐家们从著名教师那里学习，学者（通常是僧侣）在著名的宗教大师的带领下学习。医生获得了针灸、按摩、按摩和驱魔的艺术。学生会花更长的时间，而不是返回的主要大使馆。经过几年的研究，在大多数情况下，它们的费用也由中国政府支付。那些确实花时间到中国学习的人，在回到日本后，往往得到高职位，成为政府顾问或奈良大学等机构的负责人，那里教授儒家原理和汉语课程。文学和法律是最受欢迎的。僧侣将继续建立和领导自己的佛教教派，由于他们的新知识允许他们篡夺现有学校和教团的地位，这些教派变得非常受欢迎。
Throughout the Asuka period (538-710 A.D.), Japanese literature and music followed the Chinese model, and artists brought ideas back from the Asian continent. Similarly, the architectural style came from China. Nara's public buildings and its successor (Kyoto) follow the Chinese model, with the crimson columns of most publicly managed buildings supporting green tiled roofs. Heiankyo is arranged in a regular grid plan, with right-angled streets building regular-sized neighborhoods in Chang-an along the Chinese model, just like Nara. The palace follows the Chinese mind, and the city even has a Chinese Study Institute (Otani). By contrast, private homes, storage rooms and farmhouses continued to be built in accordance with Japanese architectural traditions.
在整个阿苏卡时期（公元538-710年），日本文学和音乐跟随中国模式，艺术家们从亚洲大陆带回了思想。同样，建筑风格也来自中国。奈良的公共建筑及其继任者（京都）的建筑遵循了中国模式，大多数公共管理建筑的深红色柱子都支撑着绿色瓷砖屋顶。Heiankyo被安排在一个常规的网格规划中，直角街道沿着中国模式在Chang-an建造常规大小的街区，就像奈良一样。皇宫遵循中国的思想，城市甚至有一个中国学习学院（大谷里）。相比之下，私人住宅、储藏室和农舍继续按照日本建筑传统建造。
China did send embassies occasionally to Japan and missions are recorded to Kyushu, Nara, and Heiankyo. These though, were not about the Chinese learning from Japan but rather an official seal of approval of Japan’s acceptance as a 'tribute' nation. The Chinese brought valuable gifts and, even more importantly, the merchants who were able to establish lucrative and long-lasting trade relations with their Japanese counterparts. Indeed, the commerce between the two nations would far outlast the diplomatic relations.
中国也偶尔会向日本派遣大使馆，并记录下前往九州、奈良和仙京的使团。然而，这些并不是关于中国人向日本学习，而是正式承认日本被接纳为"贡"国。中国人带来了贵重的礼物，更重要的是，这些商人能够与日本同行建立有利可图的、持久的贸易关系。事实上，两国之间的贸易将远远超过外交关系。
During the Heian period, political tasks decreased, but trade and cultural exchanges continued to do the same. Most of the goods imported from China were luxury goods, but the list is varied, including medicines, perfumes, silk fabrics, masks, brocades, ceramics, weapons, armor, cloves, wood, statilets, cloves, dyes and musical instruments. Books as well, and a catalogue dating back to 891 CE lists more than 1,700 Chinese books available in Japan, covering history, poetry, court etiquette, medicine, law and Confucian classics. Pearls, gold powder, silver, amber, agate, raw silk, camellia oil, mercury, sulfur, paper and gilded lacquer. However, despite these exchanges, the lack of regular missionary work between the two countries from the 10th century CE meant that the Heian period as a whole saw the impact of Chinese culture diminish, which subsequently, led to Japanese culture find its own unique path to development.
在平安时代，政治任务减少，但贸易和文化交流继续如前一样。从中国进口的商品大部分是奢侈品，但清单多种多样，包括药品、香水、丝绸织物、面罩、锦缎、陶瓷、武器、盔甲、丁香、木香、青金石、丁纳巴、染料和乐器。书籍也来了，一个可追溯到891 CE的目录列出了1700多种在日本提供的中国人书，涵盖了历史、诗歌、宫廷礼仪、医学、法律和儒家经典。日本寄来的珍珠、金粉、银、琥珀、玛瑙、生丝、山茶油、汞、硫磺、纸张和镀金漆器。然而，尽管这些交流，两国之间缺乏定期的传教从10世纪CE意味着，海安时期整体看到中国文化的影响减弱，这意味着日本文化开始找到自己独特的道路发展。
In the 13th century CE, at the very end of the ancient period, the Mongols set their sights on Japan. When Japan refused to become a subject nation of the mighty Kublai Khan's empire, a massive invasion force was assembled. Twice, in 1274 and 1281 CE, the Mongol fleets were blown back by typhoons - what would become known as the divine winds or kamikaze, sent by the gods to protect Japan in the moment of its greatest danger. The nation had survived and was now ready to flourish in the Medieval period and pursue its own independent and unique cultural destiny.
公元13世纪，在古代末期，蒙古人把目光投向了日本。当日本拒绝成为库布赖汗帝国的主体国时，一支庞大的侵略部队被集结起来。在公元1274年和1281年，蒙古舰队两次被台风吹回——这被称为"神风"或"卡米卡兹"，在最大危险时刻被众神派来保护日本。这个国家幸存下来，现在准备在中世纪繁荣发展，追求自己独立和独特的文化命运。
So, there have been relations between Chinese and Japanese cultures for nearly 2,000 years, and the influence of that connection is still seen today. As the older and more sophisticated of the two civilizations, Chinese culture had an enormous impact on nearly all aspects of life in Japan. You can see the influence of Chinese culture on Japanese culture in so many ways.
因此，中日文化之间的联系已经有近2000年的历史，这种联系的影响至今仍然存在。作为两个文明中比较古老和成熟的一个，中国文化几乎对日本生活的方方面面都产生了巨大的影响。你可以从很多方面看到中国文化对日本文化的影响。
Language 语言
When the two civilizations first met, there was no written Japanese language. Japanese adopted the Chinese script so that communication between the empires was possible.
当两个文明第一次相遇时，没有书面的日语。日本人采用中国文字，以便两个国家之间的交流成为可能。
Religion 信仰
Without an organized religion of their own, there was a strong appeal for both Buddhism and Confucianism when the two cultures met. Though many people in Japan still follow their older Shinto beliefs, there still exist a large Buddhist following in Japan today. Even within the native Shinto practice, the art of building permanent shrines and temples came from the Chinese approach to Buddhism.
没有自己有组织的宗教，当两种文化相遇时，佛教和儒学都有强烈的吸引力。尽管许多日本人仍然遵循他们古老的神道教信仰，但如今日本仍有大量的佛教信徒。即使在当地的神道实践中，建造永久神殿和寺庙的艺术也来自于中国的佛教。
Architecture 建筑
As Buddhism came to Japan, so did the practice of building elaborate temples. And with that development, other buildings began to take on more complex forms with larger rooms and inner courtyards. The classic curved roof style definitely came from Chinese influence, and it is still seen throughout Japan today.
随着佛教传入日本，修建精美寺庙的做法也随之而来。随着这一发展，其他建筑开始呈现出更复杂的形式，有更大的房间和内部庭院。经典的弧形屋顶风格绝对来自中国的影响，至今仍在日本随处可见。
City Planning 城市规划
The ancient Chinese approach to city planning involved the use of organizing city roadways in regular rectangles for easier navigation and communication, and you can see this concept put into use in Japanese cities like Kyoto and Nara. Even fields and irrigation systems started to use this organized and efficient system.
中国古代的城市规划方法是用规则的长方形组织城市道路，以便于导航和沟通，你可以看到这一概念在日本的京都和奈良等城市得到了应用。甚至连农田和灌溉系统也开始使用这种有组织和高效的系统。
Arts 艺术
As new artistic styles came with the import of Buddhist monks and temples, the overall art world in Japan took on many Chinese elements over the eras. Painting and sculpture were developed to display Buddhist concepts, and that impacted the overall art scene. Paintings done on fine paper in Chinese ink were very popular during the Nara period, including many forms of decorative scrolls. The practice of calligraphy as an art medium also came to Japan. Other forms of art including masked drama known as Gigaku came from China, as did the Gagaku Imperial court dancing.
随着佛教僧侣和寺庙的引进，新的艺术风格出现了，整个日本的艺术界在这个时代呈现出许多中国元素。绘画和雕塑是为了展示佛教观念而发展起来的，这影响了整个艺术领域。在奈良时期，中国水墨画在精美的纸上非常流行，包括许多形式的装饰卷轴。书法作为一种艺术媒介的实践也来到了日本。其他形式的艺术，包括被称为“吉酷”的蒙面戏，都来自中国，加加库宫廷舞蹈也是如此。
Clothing 服装
Though the kimono seems to be the quintessential Japanese icon, it was inspired by Chinese fashions of the Han period. Ironically, the clothing styles in both nations have been further influenced by the styles of the West so that traditional clothing is becoming less common.
虽然和服似乎是日本的经典标志，但它的灵感来自汉代的中国时尚。具有讽刺意味的是，这两个国家的服装风格都受到了西方风格的进一步影响，使得传统服装越来越不常见。
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