匹兹堡学派——黑格尔在分析哲学中得到了怎样的复兴?/ 翻译
Editor's Note
The following article is from 哲学社二号 Author 德弗里斯
关于作者:
译者序
「在将一个片段或一个状态刻画成认识的( knowing )片段或状态时,我们并不是在给出一个此片段或状态的经验性描述;而是将其置于理由的逻辑空间( the logical space of reasons )中,从而辩护某一言论,或让我们能够为之辩护。」
「互相承认构建了规范状态。仅当他人要求某人负责时,他才能负责;而仅当他人承认某人的权能时,他才能行使权能。而在成为能负责和有权能的人的尝试中,人同样有请他人承认的权能。要做到这点,人们就得承认他人能要求某人负责,或是承认某人的权能。而这便是承认他人有某种权能。某人要获得如此地位,又必须反过来被他人所承认。那就是在某种意义上要求自己为他人负责。但仅当某人承认他们是有权能的,从而赋予他们这一权能时,他人才在此一限度内有此权能 。」
当然话说回来,匹兹堡学派最可贵的地方并非重新发现并发展了德国观念论的这些洞见,而是他们对于传统之「外」的东西的开放和包容、对于哲学问题更宏大和全面的视野、以及敢于超越旧有传统,为着探求真理而大胆断言与论述的勇气。这也是我们意图向各位读者呈递出这篇介绍性译文的最根本的原因。
导言:当分析哲学遇到黑格尔
不过,塞拉斯之所以在众多分析哲学家中脱颖而出,是由于他对哲学史的广博了解与敏锐的阐释,尤其对是亚里士多德和康德视野下的早期现代哲学的掌握。他是一位注重经验主义的哲学家,但也痴迷于理性主义哲学。他希望将分析哲学的经验主义开端导向一个更加健全和精巧的康德阶段。不过,塞拉斯也认识到康德哲学的不足之处,他尝试着在政治领域的黑格尔主义之外(在当时人们只承认这种样式的黑格尔主义)发展出一种黑格尔主义哲学。他在匹茨堡的年轻的同事,如麦克道威尔和布兰顿,在他们的著作中发展了塞拉斯的一些洞见,同时也在许多方面与之产生分歧。
社会性和历史性
物质性的概念:群体( group )的本质角色直到黑格尔时期才被认识到,即作为概念性思考的框架出现在个体中的这一因果关系的一个中介要素。我们虽然很容易就能看到概念框架之于个体的内在性与超越性乃是一社会现象,并且能轻易确证它隐含在人在世界中的形象的形式中,但这一显白形象的特质直到十九世纪才被粗略地阐明。[3]
「对于观念论者(如黑格尔——译者注)而言,观念( ideal )上的事实性真理( matter-of-factual truth )的概念,和实存( what there really is )的概念充斥着概念化过程的假设性。但没有任何世界图景[6]有似这般精神性表达的功能。精神性表达的运作本身的不可或缺性和逻辑上的无法还原性恰恰证实了精神性运作本就不存在。因此,尽管充斥着深刻见解,观念论实质上却错得一塌糊涂。」[7]
我们如何理解那诸多不可或缺又各不相同的概念群之间的关系?就对我们变化万端的世界拥有完善的理解而言,它们似乎都很必要。可以说,塞拉斯和黑格尔都认为:有一些更优越的概念集和话语层,它们能对世界、世界历史和我们在其中的地位给予最普遍健全的解释。两人对此选择了不同的本体论取向:塞拉斯选择了唯物主义,而黑格尔选择了观念论。但他们似乎都没有认识到:这些彼此不同的概念群的不可消解性,正是这个世界的基本结构。(不,黑格尔清楚得很。在绝对理念中,黑格尔明确把绝对理念的自身或内在性视作绝对的外在,并因此毫不犹豫地承认了概念的无法消解性和内在否定性——译者注)
在将一个片段或一个状态刻画成认识的( knowing )片段或状态时,我们并不是在给出一个此片段或状态的经验性描述;而是将其置于理由的逻辑空间( the logical space of reasons )中,从而辩护某一言论,或让我们能够为之辩护。[17]
最重要的是,融贯论的(通常)图景是静止的,因此是具有误导性的。我们似乎被迫从以下两种图景中选取其一:一种是乌龟背上站着一头大象的图景。可乌龟又站在什么上面呢?另一种是黑格尔的首尾相接的知识巨蟒的图景。可知识又从哪里发端呢?我们一个都不选。经验知识之所以同科学这个它的精巧延展一样是合乎理性的,并非因为它有一个固定不变的基础,而是因为它是一种自我修正的事业。它可以让任何主张都陷入危险的境地,但不会把所有的主张都陷入其中。[19]
当然,这套对黑格尔的拒斥相当滑稽,且普遍存在于英美哲学之中。我们要修正这套错误的想象,就要指出黑格尔哲学中辩证和能动的思想。
尽管感官印象( sense impressions )对认知无可或缺,但康德不承认感官印象具有认知地位。他就这样与他所有的前辈们(比如唯理论者和经验论者)产生了激进的断裂。感觉的所属( of-ness )甚至都不是哪怕最初级的( rudimentary )思想的所属…康德的这个问题一直困扰着我。知识怎会可能有如此结构?直到最近我才意识到,解决方法就是:在因果秩序中正确地定位概念秩序,并正确阐释这其中涉及的因果关系。[21]
约翰·麦克道威尔
在一特殊经验中,如果一个人没有被误导,那么他便认事物是如此这般的。这如此这般之事是经验的内容,也可以是判断的内容:当主体直接接受这一经验时(麦克道威尔在其他地方说过:我们不能控制经验将事物表征为什么,但我们能控制自己接受或拒绝经验的呈现——译者注),它就变成了判断的内容。而此时它就是概念性内容(与塞拉斯将感官印象和概念性分离相反——译者注)。不过如此这般的事物本就是世界的构图( layout ),即若某人并未被误导,那这便是事物存在的方式。因此,既然接受性( receptivity )可以被概念性地组织,那我们此时就可以将经验理解为对于实在之构图的敞开性。[24]
塞拉斯和麦克道威尔对于康德的先验观念论的不同回应揭示了他们对黑格尔的态度。和他们一样,黑格尔也是一个认识论的实在论者:他拒斥那种我们不了解或无法了解事物自身的观点。但黑格尔和塞拉斯都不想全盘拒斥现象和事物自身的差别。塞拉斯将现象和实在的差别称为人在世界中的显白形象和科学形象的差别。黑格尔也阐述了大量以现象学方式才能理解彼此关联的现象的实在。所以说,塞拉斯和黑格尔并非拒斥现象和现实的差别,而是否认这个差别是绝对的或者无法逾越的。[25]麦克道威尔却极力为我们那「对实在之构图的敞开性」( openness to the layout of reality )辩护,而似乎并不把「我们可能系统地怀有对事物本质的错误信念」这一想法太当回事。[26]这方面上,塞拉斯比麦克道威尔更黑格尔一点。
空间,时间,以及一个成熟的认识论的实在论
当康德将我们感知的形式弄得好像它是我们主体性的理所当然的特质时,就似乎很难将其视作真实客观性的显现形式。但是,正如黑格尔所称赞的那样,当康德将我们感性的形式放置在范畴的层面上时,他进一步使我们的感性和范畴一样都成为认知的真实形式,这形式既是主观活动的形式,又是这活动所涉及的真实客观性的形式。[29]
将空间和时间整合进其他的概念性的范畴,并且从本质上忽略它们作为自身之外的内在形式的角色,这一做法丝毫不黑格尔主义。更重要的是, 麦克道威尔拆除直观与概念之间差异的行为,倒是背刺了他号称要捍卫的康德主义。毕竟,如果拒斥了有两种独立的知识源头在经验中结合的主张,康德的哲学所剩无几。[31] 这样看来,麦克道威尔的行迹与其说是朝康德的突进,不如说是向莱布尼兹那边撤退。
上述主张揭示出,麦克道威尔的观念论是一种逻辑实在论( logical realism )。麦克道威尔所讨论的世界的基本结构是逻辑或概念的结构,而其观点着力于
判断活动和意向性活动之所以与非智性存在的活动区分开来,并不是因为前者涉及什么心灵过程,而是因为事物的认知者和行动者以独特的方式为这些事物负责( response )。判断活动和意向性活动涉及承诺( commitment )。承诺是权能( authority )的认可与行使。[41]
黑格尔的创举便是意识到,为了发展康德的基本洞见,即心灵、意义和理性有着根本的规范性地位,那我们就得明白诸如权能和责任这样的规范性状态本质上是社会状态。[44]
互相承认构建了规范状态。仅当他人要求某人负责时,他才能负责;而仅当他人承认某人的权能时,他才能行使权能。而在成为能负责和有权能的人的尝试中,人同样有请他人承认的权能。要做到这点,人们就得承认他人能要求某人负责,或是承认某人的权能。而这便是承认他人有某种权能。某人要获得如此地位,又必须反过来被他人所承认。那就是在某种意义上要求自己为他人负责。但仅当某人承认他们是有权能的,从而赋予他们这一权能时,他人才在此一限度内有此权能。[45]
在认识到不相容的关系取决于与其并行的话语承诺之整体背景(我们会把它与奎因联系起来,而他会与皮埃尔·迪昂联系起来)的情况下,由非单一且严格多预设的实质推论和这种不相容关系所表述的东西。[49]
义务模态关系中的包容与排斥表述了我们主体一方的思想,真值模态关系中的涵摄和排除表述了客体一方的世界。它们之间这一原则上的平行……定义出概念的一个结构性理解。在这一结构中,思想和所思世界都可以被视作是概念性地结构起来的。在我们考虑的其他元理论承诺的视角中,这样一个关于客观现实的概念实在论,不过是模态实在论的一个结果。模态实在论意味着客观的事态与其他事态确实是相互需要,相互排斥的。[50]
结语:能动的相互作用之中的实在与概念
[1] A caveat: Hegel himself was very interested and well informed about the sciences of his day. His followers, particularly those ensconced in academia, not so much.
提示:黑格尔本人熟稔他时代的科学发展,而他的学术同僚们却不尽然。
[ 2 ] Wilfrid Sellars, 「Philosophy and the Scientific Image of Man」 [PSIM] ¶44, in Science, Perception and Reality [SPR] : 16; in In the Space of Reasons: Selected Essays of Wilfrid Sellars, eds. Kevin Scharp and Robert B. Brandom [ISR] : 384. Available online at http:// www.ditext.com/sellars/psim.html.
[ 3 ] Sellars, PSIM ¶44.
[ 4 ] Sellars, PSIM ¶48, in SPR: 17; in ISR: 385.
[ 5 ] The ‘manifest image’ is the more-or-less refined ‘common-sense’ conceptual frame work in terms of which humans have come to understand and cope with themselves in their world. It is a Strawsonian/Aristotelian framework in which persons and things are the basic objects. In Sellars’s view, it is currently being challenged by the growth of a new and categorially distinct framework that is being developed by the empirical sciences, the 「scientific image of humanity in the world.」 「显白形象」近似等同人们更加精密的常识概念结构。人们通过这些结构在世界中理解和应对自身。在斯特劳森/亚里士多德式的框架中,人和事物是最基本的物体,而在塞拉斯的视角中,这一框架正为当下日益发展的经验科学所挑战。这一经验科学框架新颖且范畴独特,被称为「人类在世界中的科学形象」。
[ 6 ] Sellars uses ‘picture’ here in a technical sense that is not equivalent to proposition or statement. Mentalistic expressions, Sellars is telling us, do not participate in the basic, naturalistically unproblematic, pre-semantic picturing relations that hold between objects in the world and the occurrence of particular sign-design types. Mentalistic expressions relate to real-world objects and events in much more complex ways.
塞拉斯此处的「图景」的含义并非等同于命题或声明。塞拉斯告诉我们,心灵表达不参与到世界中的物体和具体符号设计模式的出现[ the occurrence of particular sign-design types ] 这二者的基本的、自然意义上不冲突的、前语义的的图景关联。心智表达以复杂得多的方式与真实世界中的物体和事件关联。
[ 7 ] Wilfrid Sellars, Science and Metaphysics, chap. 5, ¶78: 142–143.
[ 8 ] A full interpretation of this passage would require an explication of Sellars’s obscure notion of picturing, which he thinks is a key to realism. But that goes beyond the scope of this chapter. See W. A. deVries, 「Getting Beyond Idealisms.」
[ 9 ] Wilfrid Sellars, 「Autobiographical Reflections: [ February, 1973 ] ,」 285. Available online at http://www.ditext.com/sellars/ar.html.
[ 10 ] It is also worth noting that Sellars would not think that rational connections among concepts are always analytic or a priori. Sellars makes room for material connections that are nonetheless rational. In general, Sellars thinks of rational connections, not on the containment model that Kant employed, but as inference tickets, and then recognizes both formally and materially valid inferences.
It is also worth remarking here that Sellars’s phrase ‘the intelligible order’ implies a unique referent. But if the intelligible order is the set of rational connections among concepts, then there will be, of course, many possible intelligible orders, since there are multiple possible conceptual frameworks. Sellars does seem to assume that we can sensibly posit a Peircean ideal framework that, given world enough and time, we would be fated to accept.
值得注意的是,塞拉斯不认为概念间的理性连接总是分析或先验的,而给尽管是质料但依旧是理性的连接保留了空间。总体而言,塞拉斯认为理性连接不是康德的「包含」模型,而是推论的凭证,并辨别了形式和质料上的有效推论。同时应当注意到,塞拉斯的「可理解的秩序」特有所指。但既然可理解的秩序是概念间的理性连接的集合,那么既然有很多可能的概念框架,就应当有很多可能的可理解秩序。塞拉斯似乎确实认为我们可以假设一个皮尔斯式的观念框架,只要有足够的时间,我们注定会接受这一框架。
[ 11 ] Sellars, PSIM ¶44, in SPR: 16; in ISR: 384.
[ 12 ] I have argued that preservation of the 「language of individual and community intentions」 in the scientific image [ as opposed to mere ‘joining’ ] is the proper conception in several places; see deVries, 「Ontology and the Completeness of Sellars’s Two Images,」 and 「Images, Descriptions, and Pictures: Personhood and the Clash.」
我在多处论证过,在科学形象[而非单纯的「参与」 ] 中保留「个体语言和群体意向」是合适的理解;请参考deVries, 「Ontology and the Completeness of Sellars’s Two Images,」 and 「Images, Descriptions, and Pictures: Personhood and the Clash.」
[ 13 ] Wilfrid Sellars, EPM. This passage, often called the ‘scientia mensura’, occurs in §41; in SPR: 173; in KMG: 253. Also available online at http://www.ditext.com/sellars/ epm.html.
[ 14 ] Sellars, PSIM ¶49; in SPR: 17; in ISR: 385.
[ 15 ] I take it, e.g., that plants are categorially different from animals in the manifest image.
我认为,植物和动物有范畴上完全不同的显白形象。
[ 16 ] Ruth Millikan, Language, Thought, and Other Biological Categories. Millikan is a right-wing Sellarsian who would agree with Sellars that we need to turn to natural science for the ultimate story about language, thought, and other biological categories. For an interesting review of her differences with the left-wing Brandom, see Ruth Millikan, 「The Father, the Son, and the Daughter.」 For further discussion of their differences, see Willem A. deVries, 「All in the Family.」
Ruth Millikan, Language, Thought, and Other Biological Categories. 米利肯是右翼塞拉斯主义者,和塞拉斯一样认为我们需要在自然科学中寻找语言,思想和生物类别的真理。米利肯写过一篇有趣的文章,回复了她和左翼塞拉斯主义者布兰顿之间的差异。请参考「The Father, the Son, and the Daughter.」 For further discussion of their differences, see Willem A. deVries, 「All in the Family.」
[ 17 ] Sellars, EPM §36, in SPR: 169; in KMG: 248.
[ 18 ] Formally valid inferences are so in virtue of the syntactic structures of the sentences involved, without regard to their content. Modus ponens or a valid syllogism are classic examples. Materially good inferences are not formally valid, but are such that it is part of the language that the truth of the premise[ s ] entails the truth of the conclusion. For ex ample, 「A is red」 materially implies 「A is colored.」 Sellars thinks of scientific laws as pro posed and corroborated material inference tickets.
形式有效的推断之所以有效靠的是所涉及语句的语法结构,而非内容。肯定前件式和有效三段论是经典例子。质料上好的推断并不形式有效,但内置于这样一种结构,即前提为真则结论为真。比如说,「A是红的」质料上暗示了「A有颜色」。塞拉斯认为科学法则就是被提出和确证过的质料推论的凭证。
[ 19 ] Sellars, EPM §38: in SPR: 170; in KMG: 250.
[ 20 ] John McDowell, Mind and World, 23.[ 21 ] Sellars, 「Autobiographical Reflections,」 285.
[ 22 ] For an intelligible, thorough examination of Sellars’s two-component analysis of per ceptual experience, see Paul Coates, The Metaphysics of Perception: Wilfrid Sellars, Per ceptual Consciousness and Critical Realism.
如果想对塞拉斯的对感知经验的双组成分析有一个更明晰透彻的检验,请参考Paul Coates, The Metaphysics of Perception: Wilfrid Sellars, Perceptual Consciousness and Critical Realism
[ 23 ] John McDowell, Mind and World, 51.
[ 24 ] McDowell, Mind and World, 26.
[ 25 ] It is notable that attacking the absoluteness of familiar philosophical distinctions is a standard move for pragmatists. This connection to pragmatism is particularly important for Brandom.
值得注意的是,攻击熟悉的哲学上的差异性是典型的实用主义做法,而这一与实用主义的联系对布兰顿至关重要。
[ 26 ] This is probably the influence of Donald Davidson on McDowell.
这很有可能是唐纳德·戴维森[Donald Davidson] 对麦克道威尔的影响。
[ 27 ] Sally Sedgewick’s analysis in Hegel’s Critique of Kant: From Dichotomy to Identity is very helpful.
Sally Sedgewick在此处的分析是很有帮助的:Hegel’s Critique of Kant: From Dichotomy to Identity
[ 28 ] See Paul Redding, Analytic Philosophy and the Return of Hegelian Thought.
[ 29 ] John McDowell, 「Having the World in View: Sellars, Kant, and Intentionality,」 102– 103.
[ 30 ] The problematic explananda here are the facts that [ 1 ] space and time receive dialectical treatment in Hegel’s system at two very different locations: once early on in the Philosophy of Nature and once in the last third of the Philosophy of Subjective Spirit; and [ 2 ] animals, who operate at the level of sensation and not thought, must nonetheless be able to track and in some sense represent space and time. The obvious answer seems to be that, as Hegel himself says, space and time are forms embodied in different substrata, one of which is non-conceptual.
这里尚不确定的待解释项是:[1] 空间和时间在黑格尔的体系中被在两个非常不同的位置受到了辩证的处理:较早的一处在《自然哲学》中,而另一处在主观精神哲学最后三分之一的部分;[2] 动物这一存在,尽管它只处在感觉层面,不能思考,但它还是得能追踪时间和空间,并且还要能够在某种意义上表征时空。这一显见的答案似乎就如黑格尔所说:时间和空间乃是体现在不同根基中的形式,其中之一是非概念性的。
[ 31 ] This point is elaborated and defended more fully in Paul Redding, 「McDowell’s Radi calization of Kant’s Account of Concepts and Intuitions.」
这一点被Paul Redding更充分地完善和捍卫了,见「McDowell’s Radicalization of Kant’s Account of Concepts and Intuitions.」
[ 32 ] Ludwig Wittgenstein, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, Proposition 1.
[ 33 ] McDowell, 「Having the World in View,」 143.
[ 34 ] McDowell, 「Having the World in View,」 143.
[ 35 ] This is a point made also by Roderick Firth in an article Sellars referred to often: 「Co herence, Certainty, and Epistemic Priority.」
这也是Roderick Firth的观点。塞拉斯在这篇论文中经常引用他:「Coherence, Certainty, and Epistemic Priority.」
[ 36 ] Wilfrid Sellars, 「Inference and Meaning.」 Note the order of explication here: meaning is determined by inferential proprieties, not the other way around.
Wilfrid Sellars, 「Inference and Meaning.」 请注意这里的解释次序:意义是为推论性的性质决定的,不是被别的东西决定的。
[ 37 ] Lewis Carroll, 「What the Tortoise said to Achilles.」[ 38 ] Wilfrid Sellars, 「Some Remarks on Kant’s Theory of Experience.」
[ 39 ] There is a trivial sense of ‘relation’ in which any statement the surface grammar of which contains a relational [ that is, n-place for n > 1 ] predicate describes a relation. But surface grammar is not decisive here. After all, sentences of the form 「X is related to Y」 are not all true for every substituend X and Y.
有种对「关系」的平凡定义是,在任意陈述中,包含关系谓词[ 比如说在n>1中n的位置 ] 的表层语法都描述了一个关系。但表层语法在这里没有决定性的意义。毕竟,形如「X与Y相关」的句子对每一个代换项X与Y而言并不全为真。
[ 40 ] Robert B. Brandom, 「Animating Ideas,」 27–110.
[ 41 ] Brandom, 「Animating Ideas,」 32.[ 42 ] Brandom, 「Animating Ideas,」 49.[ 43 ] Brandom, 「Animating Ideas,」 62.
[ 44 ] Brandom, 「Animating Ideas,」 66.
[ 45 ] Brandom, 「Animating Ideas,」 70.
[ 46 ] Brandom, 「Animating Ideas,」 88.
[ 47 ] Cf. Sellars’s remark, 「[S] cientific terms have, as part of their logic a ‘line of retreat’ as well as a ‘plan of advance’,」 CDCM, 288. This is a point that, given Sellars’s treatment of meanings, applies to all terms, not just scientific terms.
参见塞拉斯的评论,「[S] cientific terms have, as part of their logic a ‘line of retreat’ as well as a ‘plan of advance’,」 CDCM, 288. 鉴于塞拉斯对意义的处理,这一点不仅只适用于科学术语,它同时适用于所有术语。
[ 48 ] Brandom, 「Animating Ideas,」 100.
[ 49 ] Brandom, 「Animating Ideas,」 102.
[ 50 ] Brandom, 「Animating Ideas,」 97–98.
[ 51 ] See the last of McDowell’s Woodbridge Lectures, 「Intentionality as a Relation,」 in Mc Dowell, Having the World in View, 44–65.
见麦克道威尔木桥镇讲座的末章, 「Intentionality as a Relation,」 in Mc Dowell, Having the World in View, 44–65.
[ 52 ] I would like to thank Paul Redding, Carl Sachs, and Dean Moyar for helpful comments on an earlier draft of this chapter. Parts of this chapter have also been the target of feed back from audiences at Kent State University and the University of Sheffield. Thanks to them as well.
我要感谢Paul Redding,Carl Sachs和Dean Moyar对这一章初稿给出的有帮助性的意见。这章有几个部分也来自于肯特州立大学与谢菲尔德大学读者们的反馈,在此一并表示感谢。
请扫码关注我们的主号!