绿色智慧城市（2）|如何从我们的错误中总结出经验：在汽车狂潮中拯救你的城市

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国开金融、能源创新组织及能源基金会已共同发布《绿色智慧城市开发导则》。我们编撰该系列文章，旨在就中国城市可持续发展相关问题做深入研究。

本文作者克里斯·布什是美国加州大学伯克利分校环境经济博士，目前系能源创新组织（Energy Innovation）研究主任，领衔关于城市可持续发展的研究。此前他供职于劳伦斯伯克利美国国家实验室。

具体的导则虽有顺序，但不存在哪一条更重要的区别。这里讨论的是第八条绿色导则，即小汽车控制。

绿色智慧导则的下载链接：http://energyinnovation.org/what-we-do/urban-sustainability/7118-2/

如何从我们的错误中总结出经验：在汽车狂潮中拯救你的城市

（绿色导则#8, 小汽车控制）

克里斯 • 布什(Chris Busch)

China’s urbanization offers incredible promise, but stronger action is needed to implement the goal of “building cities for people” for it to truly succeed. The danger is that Chinese cities will develop transportation systems based on private passenger cars. China is already experiencing crippling traffic jams and a staggering number of (http://www.ibtimes.com/china-traffic-deaths-more-200000-annual-fatilities-road-accidents-world-health-1910537). Motor vehicle emissions are the fastest growing source of air pollution in many cities. These warning signs have emerged even though less than 10 percent of Chinese people own cars.

中国的城镇化进程，前景简直令人难以置信，但要真正成功实现“以人为本建设城市”的目标，中国必须采取更强有力的措施。危险在于，中国城市会以私家小汽车的需求来发展交通系统。中国的交通拥堵已达到了相当严重的程度，交通事故死亡人数也令人震惊。 在许多城市，机动车排放是增长最快的空气污染源。虽然中国仅有不足10%的人口拥有汽车，但现实已敲响了警钟。

California and the United States have learned firsthand the high cost of building cities around cars. The good news is that it is not too late for China to avoid making these same mistakes. The solutions are well understood and include a combination of direct steps to manage car use and indirect steps to support other travel modes.

对于以汽车为中心的城市发展所导致的高成本，加州乃至美国都有切身体会。好消息是，中国还有时间避免犯下同样的错误。解决方案不难，需要将管理汽车使用的直接措施与支持其他交通模式的间接措施相结合。

the downside of cities for cars: Evidence from California

车轮上的城市之弊：来自加州的证据

For people living in California in the mid-1900s, cars initially seemed liked the greatest thing. The entertainment business emanating from Hollywood also helped to popularize (http://www.smithsonianmag.com/ist/?next=/history/nobody-walks-in-la-the-rise-of-cars-and-the-monorails-that-never-were-43267593/). Today, the state’s urban Californians have learned of the downsides of low-density and sprawling suburban neighborhoods. Sprawl means that housing is too spread out to serve all residents with high-quality transit. At the same time, sprawl imposes long distances between people and the markets, jobs, schools, and friends that are a part of their daily lives. The result is that people are forced into cars just about anytime people want to go anywhere. About 75% of all trips in California are by motor vehicle. This car dependence imposes high economic, social, and environmental costs.

上世纪中叶，汽车最初被加州居民视为极棒的发明。好莱坞的娱乐业也有助于普及汽车文化。如今，加州居民却体会到低密度、无序蔓延的郊区社区的缺点。蔓延意味着住房过于分散，很难为所有居民提供高质量的公共交通，也拉长了居民与关系密切的市场、工作、学校和朋友之间的距离。结果，人们无论去什么地方都不得不驾驶汽车。加州的交通之中，约75%为机动车出行。对汽车的依赖，造成了非常高的经济、社会和环境成本。

Passenger vehicles are California’s largest source of air pollution. They contribute 25 percent of the state’s total greenhouse gas emissions and an even higher percentage of local air pollutants. In contrast, walking and biking produce zero emissions.

小汽车是加州最大的空气污染源。小汽车排放占到加州温室气体排放总量的25%，局部空气污染物的占比甚至更高。相反，步行和骑行则是零排放的出行方式。

While the environmental costs of cars are well understood, more surprising are the economic costs of urban development centered on cars. There are economic costs for government, families, and businesses. For government, public infrastructure and services are much more costly to provide over larger areas than more focused growth patterns. Building the infrastructure right the first time . Cars are also an expensive mode of transportation. The typical car owner in California spends around per year on fuel and maintenance(http://newsroom.aaa.com/2013/04/cost-of-owning-and-operating-vehicle-in-u-s-increases-nearly-two-percent-according-to-aaas-2013-your-driving-costs-study/).

汽车造成的环境成本不难理解。更令人意外的是，以汽车为中心的城市发展所造成的经济成本。政府、家庭和企业均需为此付出经济成本。政府方面，相比更集中的发展模式，在更大区域内提供公共基础设施和服务的成本更高。从最开始便建成合适的基础设施，付出的成本更低。此外，汽车也是一种代价昂贵的交通模式。加州的普通私家车主每年的燃料和维护成本支出约为9000美元。

Time spent fighting traffic is another type of cost that is often unacknowledged. California is home to three of the five most congested urban areas in the Unites States. In Los Angeles, traffic congestion adds an average of 80 hours per year to the journey of the typical car commuter. In San Francisco, this figure is 78 extra hours per year wasted in traffic on top of the average commute time, and in San Jose, 60 hours. Time wasted fighting traffic cuts into productivity, and decreases quality of life, which makes it harder to retain the most desirable businesses (or attract new businesses and the talented employees they rely on). Livable, walkable, transit-friendly places perform better economically . （http://www.apta.com/resources/statistics/Documents/NewRealEstateMantra.pdf ；http://www.sfexaminer.com/wharf-workers-still-stranded-tech-bus-picks-up-munis-slack/）

交通拥堵浪费的时间则是另一种经常被忽视的成本。美国最拥堵的市区，有五分之三位于加州。在洛杉矶，普通驾车通勤者每年因交通拥堵平均需额外增加80个小时的出行时间。在旧金山，在正常通勤时间之外，驾车通勤者要在交通中额外浪费78个小时，在圣何塞，这一数字为60个小时。浪费在交通拥堵中的时间，会降低生产率和生活质量，导致这些城市更难留住最好的那些公司，并难以吸引新公司和人才。宜居、适宜步行、公共交通友好的城市，或者有更好的经济绩效。

There are social costs to building car-dependent suburbs, too. People live further away from each other and spend more time driving alone. For the very young and the very old, car dependent places can make daily activities difficult if not impossible. The sedentary lifestyle that follows in large part from relying on a car to get around has been linked to the U.S. obesity crisis. When public transit is made a first class, convenient option, it offers people an incredible asset for mobility and access.

建设依赖汽车的郊区，还会产生社会成本。市民彼此距离更远，要花更多时间独自驾车。对于老人和小孩，依赖汽车的城市，让他们不可能或很难进行日常活动。依靠汽车出行，一定程度上养成了久坐的生活方式，这种生活方式与美国的肥胖危机直接相关。如果公共交通变成最佳的便利出行的选择，将为市民创造超乎想象的移动性和便利性。

Correcting the legacy of sprawl: the San Francisco Example

纠正蔓延遗留的问题：旧金山的例子

Today, California is working to untangle the low-density, car-dependent mess it created decades ago. The state has doubled the share of public transit and non-motorized transit options since 2000 and aims to triple them again by 2020 (http://cal.streetsblog.org/2015/04/07/cas-draft-transportation-plan-says-drive-less-stop-expanding-hwys/；http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/tpp/offices/omsp/statewide_travel_analysis/files/CHTS_Final_Report_June_2013.pdf). San Francisco is a leading example of efforts by the state’s cities to correct the mistakes of the past.

今天，加州正在努力解决其在十几年前因低密度发展和依赖汽车所产生的问题。2000年以来，加州的公共交通和非机动车出行方式比例增加了一倍，并计划在2020年再增加一倍。旧金山便是加州各大城市努力纠正历史错误的典型代表。

Pedestrian Entrance to San Francisco’s Ferry Building.

旧金山轮渡大厦的行人入口。

An earthquake in 1989 toppled a highway that would have obscured this view. Now, without the highway breaking up pedestrian accessible, the Ferry Building is a thriving landmark as well as a functioning commuter ferry terminal. (Photo: Chris Busch)

1989年的一场地震摧毁了一条遮挡此处景观的高速公路。如今，高速公路对此处的步行通达性影响已经消失，轮渡大楼现在已经成为一个欣欣向荣的地标建筑，同时也是一个正常运行的通勤轮渡码头。（拍摄者：克里斯·布什）

San Francisco has made great progress in prioritizing biking, walking, and public transit, and is acting on multiple levels to make it happen. The city is:

旧金山在优先发展骑行、步行和公共交通方面取得了巨大进展，旧金山为此开展了多个层面的工作。旧金山市正在：

· Building up its transit system: A 5.1 mile extension of the city’s light rail system was in 2007(http://www.centralsubwaysf.com/content/project-overview), and further expansions are planned.

· 扩大公共交通系统：2007年完成了市政轻轨系统5.1英里的延长线，进一步扩建正在规划当中。

· Establishing a comprehensive network of protected bike lanes, and in the process taking away lanes from cars. As a result, biking has tripled in the city.

· 建立保护型自行车专用道的综合网络，并逐步减少机动车道数量。这一措施使旧金山市的自行车出行增加到原来的三倍。

· Prioritizing construction of more mixed use developments (such as Mission Bay and the new 5th and Market developments) by speeding approval of permits for such developments. Mixed use makes biking and walking more attractive travel options. By providing nearby access, mixed-use neighborhoods allow residents to more easily walk or bike places. This cuts down on the need to rely on cars.

· 加快混合用途开发项目的许可审批，优先建设该类项目（如教会海湾和新第五大街与市场街开发项目）。混合用途开发使骑行和步行变成更有吸引力的出行选择。通过提供附近的通道，混合用途社区可以让居民步行或骑行出行更加便利。并因而减少对汽车的依赖。

· Using pricing(https://www.sfmta.com/getting-around/parking/pricing-info).This approach increases parking charges at peak times. This has the effect of discouraging people from driving into certain parts of the city during busy hours and it also is used to ensure some parking spots are always available. Since parking spots are generally available, this cuts down on people driving around looking for parking, which helps reduce traffic congestion.

· 采取实时停车定价。实时停车定价提高了高峰时段的停车收费价格。这一措施可以抑制市民在高峰时段驾车进入城市的特定区域，也可以确保始终有可用的停车位。而停车位的普遍可用性，减少了市民开车寻找停车位的情况，有助于缓解交通拥堵。

· Considering removing the city section of another major freeway, (http://www.nbcbayarea.com/news/local/Mayor-Supervisor-Call-for-Plan-to-Tear-Down-I-280-Extension-for-Train-Line-303342831.html), which currently extends to the city center, after having already removed one freeway into the city.

· 在拆除一条高速公路进入市区的部分之后，正在考虑拆除另外一条主要高速公路进入市区的部分，即。这条公路目前一直延伸至旧金山市中心。

These mobility strategies are making a difference. added to San Francisco since 2006 are taking transit, walking, biking, or carpooling. Only six percent are driving alone to work(http://sf.streetsblog.org/2015/09/25/census-95-of-new-sf-commuters-since-2006-dont-drive-solo/).

这些移动性策略有着重要的影响。2006年以来，旧金山新增居民中，94%选择公共交通、步行、骑行或汽车共乘的通勤方式。仅有6%选择独自驾车通勤。

How new San Francisco residents are getting to work (commuters added since 2006).

旧金山新增居民的通勤方式（2006年之后新增的通勤者）。

Transit captures the largest share of commuters added to San Francisco’s population since 2006. Only six percent of new commuters choose to drive alone as their method of getting to work, while nearly a third chooses to bike or walk ().

在2006年之后旧金山市新增的通勤者中，公共交通所占的比例最大。仅有6%的新通勤者选择独自驾车通勤，有近三分之一选择了骑行或步行（SF Streetsblog 2014）。

At the same time these new mobility strategies and other sustainable urbanization strategies have taken root in San Francisco, the City has become the focus of venture capital investment, regionally and nationally. Today San Francisco pulls in dollars than the San Jose region(http://martinprosperity.org/media/Startup-City.pdf). San Francisco’s livability has made it a more attractive place for talent, drawing workers away from the traditional center of Silicon Valley, San Jose, that is dominated by sprawling development and parking lots. The City is also one of the fastest growing metropolitan economies in the nation. Places that are better for people instead of cars are also better for business.

在旧金山稳步推行这些新的移动性策略和其他可持续城市化策略的同时，旧金山也成为地区和国家级风险资本投资的热点。目前，旧金山吸引的风险资本比圣何塞地区高出74%。旧金山的宜居性，使其对人才更有吸引力，越来越多的人离开圣何塞的硅谷来到旧金山。硅谷作为传统的人才聚居地，一直采取无序扩张的发展方式，并被停车位统治。 此外，旧金山也是美国经济发展最快的大都市。更以人为本而不是以汽车为中心的城市，也更有利于商业发展。

LESSONS FOR CHINESE CITIES FROM THE SAN FRANCISCO EXPERIENCE

中国城市可以从旧金山的经验中学到什么

The Chinese government has put in place many of the right policies, promoting public transit as the priority form of motorized travel; issuing new national guidelines to encourage non-motorized (walking and biking) travel, supported with pilot projects in 100 cities; and, in its recent national urbanization strategy, prioritizing transit-oriented and more compact growth.

中国政府实施了多项恰当的政策，如促进公共交通发展，将公共交通变成机动化出行的优先选择；颁布新的国家指导准则，鼓励非机动化（步行和骑行）出行，并在100个城市开展试点项目；在最近的国家城市化战略中，首选公交导向的、更紧凑的城市发展模式。

City governments must act more quickly to implement these policies at the local scale, and enact their own tailored policies. For local governments and developers, there are two key lessons that China can learn from San Francisco:

城市政府必须更快行动起来，在本地落实这些国家政策，并因地制宜制定配套的地方政策。对于地方政府和开发者而言，旧金山市主要提供了两方面的经验：

1. Control car use through direct and indirect strategies: Congestion charging and peak pricing for parking are examples of direct strategies. Also, there should be rules and strong enforcement to prevent cars from intruding into pedestrian spaces. Indirect strategies involve support for other modes of travel. Cities must make sure that public transit is a first-class option. While China has a number of bike-sharing programs, it can better support these with connected and dedicated bike lanes.

通过直接和间接策略控制汽车使用：拥堵收费和高峰停车定价属于直接策略。同时，必须制定并严格实施相关规定，禁止汽车侵占步行空间。间接策略包括支持其他出行模式。城市必须保证公共交通成为最佳出行选择。中国各大城市推出了多项公共自行车项目，而通过互连的专用自行车道，可以为这些项目提供更有效的支持。

Moreover, improving public transit can is an indirect strategy to manage car use. Public transit systems can also speed the introduction of clean technologies. China has been rapidly upgrading bus fleets to help fight air quality, mainly through switching to cleaner conventional fuels. Electric buses are an important opportunity for Chinese cities to consider, as these are increasingly cost effective.

此外，改善公共交通也是管理汽车使用的间接策略之一。公共交通系统还可以加快清洁技术的推广。为了改善空气质量，中国一直在加快升级公共汽车，主要方式是采用更清洁的常规燃料。考虑到电动公共汽车的成本效益日益提高，这也是中国城市可以考虑的一个重要选择。

2. Create an urban form that is more conducive to walking and biking. This means developing in more compact ways. Mixed-use development also increases walking and biking by making amenities more accessible. By taking these steps, China’s cities will ensure that avoid becoming dominated by cars at the expense of the quality of life for humans.

创造更有益于步行和骑行的城市形态。这意味着坚持更紧凑的发展方式。混合用途开发提高了便利设施的可达性，进而增加了步行和骑行的比例。通过上述措施，中国城市能够避免以市民的生活质量下降为代价，变成被汽车所主宰的地方。

The world is watching, as always, intrigued by what China has accomplished in lifting hundreds of millions out of poverty, and by the vibrancy and potential of its urbanization process. The great hope is that China will lead in advancing the frontier of sustainable and livable cities, and in the process help heal itself of air pollution as well as underpin quality economic growth.

中国成功让数以亿计国民摆脱了贫困，中国的城市化进程也将给自身带来新的活力和潜力，这让全世界对中国充满了兴趣，中国的城市化将成为全世界关注焦点。我们期待，中国能够开拓可持续与宜居城市建设的新领域，并在城市化的过程中，解决空气污染问题，实现高质量的经济增长。

（Chris Busch is the Director of Research at Energy Innovation, where he leads the company’s work on Urban Sustainability. Prior to joining Energy Innovation, Chris worked in the nonprofit world and at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. In 2006, he earned his a Ph.D. in environmental economics from the University of California, Berkeley. ）