ASR新文速递| 为什么在加纳仅仅这个政府部门能有高效的科层制？

此为第164-6期的《ASR2017年新三篇》的no.1

预告见：《美国社会学评论》2017年新三篇

McDonnell, Erin Metz. 2017. ‘Patchwork Leviathan: How Pockets of Bureaucratic Governance Flourish within Institutionally Diverse Developing States’. American Sociological Review 82 (3):476–510.

1. 科层制研究的三个难题

第一，发展研究的难题：西方vs.本土

国际组织帮扶第三世界发展时候，往往会希望有组织创新，但也往往会发现他们希望的——来自外部的、自上而下的——制度大多有很强的西方的科层制的气质，会面临和当地制度环境不匹配的难题。

Scholarship increasingly agrees that failures arise from mismatches between advocated organizational practices and local institutional environments ... External and top-down reforms... all contemporary states have formal organizations performing administration, but not all state organizations embody the ethos and practices of Weberian-style bureaucracy.

第二，比较的难题

科层制研究中，重跨国，而非国内的比较。而国家不是铁板一块/a single actor

Scholars’ focus on inequalities of bureaucratic administration between states overlooks tremendous variation within states.

2. 提出问题

作者看到加纳这个国家，这么穷这么破，公务员工资这么低，大家都磨洋工，为什么还会有一帮子感觉“俺也是赵家人”的社会主义接班的人姿势去好好工作，在这个普遍的庇护制的政府制度环境下，形成了高效的科层制的“小生境”（niche）呢？

This article explains both how interstitial bureaucracy differs from hegemonic bureaucracy and why.

 how variation in organizational capacity in the local environment may profoundly shape the kinds of organizational practices that are locally effective.

how bureaucratic practices function in cases, like Ghana, that are neither extensively bureaucratized nor completely failing, which empirically represent the majority of states globally

3. 研究发现：怎样让公务员不磨洋工？

加纳的公务员，成天懒洋洋，上班磨洋工，提前下班还喜欢兼职打工（穷！）。

——但是，居然有几个办公室通宵达旦！一天干14h还不够，对领导的最大意见就是：领导您太不爱惜自己身体了加班到现在！

为什么！

其中一个机构是the Policy Analysis and Research Division (PARD) was considered, by both insiders and outside experts, to be a niche of administrative excellence.

McDonnell从五个方面展开：

第一，自主性 Autonomy Instead of Hierarchy

这一部分主要是分析人事制度，认为确实big man很重要，要保障这个niche的在hiring上的自主，有进也有出。

PARD leaders used tactics of refusal, poaching, and reassignment to informally achieve personnel autonomy ...  PARD’s director reassigned someone to a post outside the division for failing to meet the niche’s standards for timeliness, productivity, and work quality.

我记得，以前去一个很出名的政研室调研的时候，那个主任说：他们怎么推脱不想接收转业军人、占用编制的领导秘书之类的，为了保证自己的人事上的自主性，以保证高效。

第二，非经济利益的入职动机 Recruitment and Nonfinancial Motivations: The Mystery of Missing Middle Managers

在这些国家，商业部门都赚得比公务员，为什么还要到来当公务员？要给超过salary的东西。在加纳，尽管有家庭关系或年龄太大跳了不了槽会去政府，但是对一般的年轻人是真的没吸引力了。

但这些niche却能够吸引年轻的大学毕业生。这个可爱的大学毕业生说得，简直就像我的ex-老板跟我说的：年轻人，好好干，不要着急，现在是积累经验嘛，今后有你的机会。

当然，洗脑还是很重要的！——价值

Older and younger members shared a belief that the work itself is valuable

第三，培育认同：我是社会主义接班人！ Cultivation and Identification: Pride Instead of Cogs in a Machine

尽管Weber更会同意，科层制要大家当螺丝钉，但在加纳，这里科层制气质却在于pride。

第四，冗余和交叉任职并未是坏事。 Internal Coping Practices: Adaptive Redundancy Instead of Discrete Jurisdictions

这样要一个人干些交叉到别人的活，看上去可能是不符合科层制。但是在加纳这种大环境下，科层制作为niche，要通过这种方式，才能防止因人事波动带来的掉链子。

An external observer might view this overlap as fundamentally unbureaucratic.

因此，它看上去是不合韦伯的定义，但其实是创造了一种应对不确实性的新的可预测性的方式。

Intentional redundancy is an adaptive social technology enabling productivity and predictability in the context of uncertainties

第五，如何处理外部的猪队友、肥领导呢？Disciplining Outsiders: Managing Problematic Embeddedness Instead of Hierarchical Order

虽然要依赖外面了，要对外面施压，比如这个政策部门的数据有90%要靠外面，就要不停的追追追。当然还要靠big man的social capital，也要把自己的工作风格传播出去。

Niches are particularly vulnerable to upstream outsider interactions when the niche’s work depends on inputs from outsiders ... Another long-term tactic for managing inter-organizational dependencies hints at one possible mechanism for diffusing the practices of interstitial bureaucracy outside of originating niches.

5. 研究结果

第一，提出“缝隙式科层制”/小生境

作者援引了Mann’s (1986) work的定义，提出了the concept of interstitial bureaucracy to explain how and why, within such neopatrimonial environments, these unexpected and unconventional organizational practices enhance effectiveness high-performing niches utilize similar organizational practices despite being located in substantively different ministerial portfolios, suggesting this is a systematic organizational response to their common position.

第二，作者也认为，科层制的判定，不应执着于Characters，而要看ethos。

第三，进一步总结到人事、认知、物质资源上的科层制气质的体现

Bureaucratic interstices foster socially innovative or deviant values, practices, and cultural tools by clustering a critical mass of proto-bureaucratic human, cognitive, and material resources

见图：

6. 开放给下一步的“缝隙式科层制”的研究：

Why does interstitial bureaucracy develop in some parts of the state but not others?

Under what conditions do these niches endure or become overwhelmed by the larger environment?

What might enable their distinctive ethos and practices to spread within the state?

Under what conditions does interstitial bureaucracy emerge as organization?

How does the scale affect particular dynamics? 

链接：

【第161-3期：驱逐与流离失所专辑】

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