刊讯｜SSCI 期刊 《二语习得研究》2023年第1-2期

STUDIES IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Volume 45, Issue 1-2, March 2023

STUDIES IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION (SSCI一区，2022 IF: 4.1，排名：12/194) 2023年第1-2期共刊文26篇。其中，2023年第1期共发文12篇，其中研究性论文9篇，方法性论坛1篇，研究报告1篇，复制研究1篇。研究论文主要针对二语习得研究，主题包括fMRI实验，ERP研究等。2023年第2期共发文14篇，其中研究性论文10篇，方法性论坛1篇，研究报告2篇，复制研究1篇。研究论文主要针对二语习得研究，主题包括眼动研究，韵律与词句法研究，词汇模型研究，自我检测研究等。欢迎转发扩散！

往期推荐：

目录

Issue 1

RESEARCH ARTICLES

■ Text reading in English as a second language: Evidence from the Multilingual Eye-Movements Corpus, by Victor Kuperman, Noam Siegelman, Sascha Schroeder, Cengiz Acartürk, Svetlana Alexeeva, Simona Amenta, Raymond Bertram, Rolando Bonandrini, Marc Brysbaert, Daria Chernova, Sara Maria Da Fonseca, Nicolas Dirix, Wouter Duyck, Argyro Fella, Ram Frost, Carolina A. Gattei, Areti Kalaitzi, Kaidi Lõo, Marco Marelli, Kelly Nisbet, Timothy C. Papadopoulos, Athanassios Protopapas, Satu Savo, Diego E. Shalom, Natalia Slioussar, Roni Stein, Longjiao Sui, Analí Taboh, Veronica Tønnesen, Kerem Alp Usal, Pages 3–37.

■ The multidimensionality of second language oral fluency: Interfacing cognitive fluency and utterance fluency, by Shungo Suzuk, Judit Kormos, Pages 38-64.

■ Individual differences in the acquisition of language-specific and dialect-specific allophones of intervocalic /d/ by L2 and heritage Spanish speakers studying abroad in Sevilla, by Brendan Regan, Pages 65-92.

■ Anxiety, enjoyment, and boredom in language learning amongst junior secondary students in rural China: How do they contribute to L2 achievement?, by Chengchen Li, Li Wei, Pages 93-108.

■ An fMRI validation study of the word-monitoring task as a measure of implicit knowledge: Exploring the role of explicit and implicit aptitudes in behavioral and neural processing, by Yuichi Suzuki, Hyeonjeong Jeong, Haining Cui, Kiyo Okamoto, Ryuta Kawashima, Motoaki Sugiura, Pages 109-136.

■ Variability in native and nonnative language: An ERP study of semantic and grammar processing, by Sarah Grey, Pages 137-166.

■ Linguistic dissimilarity increases age-related decline in adult language learning, by Job J. Schepens, Roeland W. N. M. van Hout, Frans W. P. van der Slik, Pages 167-188.

■ A longitudinal investigation of the effects of language instruction versus immersion on cognitive functions in young adult Chinese speakers learning English, by Lihua Xia, Thomas H. Bak, Mariana Vega-Mendoza, Antonella Sorace, Pages 189–211.

■ The effects of proficiency level and dual-task condition on L2 self-monitoring behavior, by Ghadah Albarqi, Parvaneh Tavakoli, Pages 212-233.

METHODS FORUM

■ Automated assessment of second language comprehensibility: Review, training, validation, and generalization studies, by Kazuya Saito, Konstantinos Macmillan, Magdalena Kachlicka, Takuya Kunihara, Nobuaki Minematsu, Pages 234-263.

RESEARCH REPORT

■ Text recall and use of advance organisers in first and second language, by Sara Dhaene, Evy Woumans, Pages 264-275.

REPLICATION STUDY

■ Proficiency, language of assessment, and attention to meaning and form during L2 comprehension: Methodological considerations in L2 replication research, by Paweł Szudarski and Sylwia Mikołajczak, Pages 276-288.

Issue 2

RESEARCH ARTICLES

■ Effects of distributed practice on the acquisition of verb-noun collocations, by Satoshi Yamagata, Tatsuya Nakata, James Rogers, Pages 291–317.

■ A role for verb regularity in the L2 processing of the Spanish subjunctive mood: Evidence from eye-tracking, by Sara Fernández Cuenca, Jill Jegerski, Pages 318-347. 

■ The additive use of prosody and morphosyntax in L2 German, by Nick Henry, Pages 348-369.

■ "Bread and butter" or "butter and bread"? Nonnatives' processing of novel lexical patterns in context, by Suhad Sonbul, Dina Abdel Salam El-Dakhs, Kathy Conklin, Gareth Carrol, Pages 370-392.

■ The elusive impact of L2 immersion on translation priming, by Adel Chaouch-Orozco, Jorge González Alonso, Jon Andoni Duñabeitia, Jason Rothman, Pages 393-415.

■ A closer look at a marginalized test method: Self-assessment as a measure of speaking proficiency, by Paula Winke, Xiaowan Zhang, Steven J. Pierce, Pages 416-441. 

■ Explicit Instruction within a Task: Before, During, or After?, by Gabriel Michaud, Ahlem Ammar, Pages 442–460.

■ Sources and effects of foreign language enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom: A structural equation modeling approach, by Jean-Marc Dewaele, Elouise Botes, Samuel Greiff, Pages 461-479.

■ Second language productive knowledge of collocations: Does knowledge of individual words matter?, by Suhad Sonbul, Dina Abdel Salam El-Dakhs, Ahmed Masrai, Pages 480-501.

■ A longitudinal study into learners' productive collocation knowledge in L2 German and factors affecting the learning, by Griet Boone, Vanessa De Wilde, June Eyckmans, Pages 503-525.

METHODS FORUM

■ Automated assessment of second language comprehensibility: Review, training, validation, and generalization studies, by Kazuya Saito, Konstantinos Macmillan, Magdalena Kachlicka, Takuya Kunihara, Nobuaki Minematsu, Pages 234-263.

RESEARCH REPORT

■ The importance of psychological and social factors in adult SLA: The case of productive collocation knowledge in L2 Swedish of L1 French long-term residents, by Fanny Forsberg Lundell, Klara Arvidsson, Andreas Jemstedt, Pages 558-570.

■ Revisiting the moderating effect of speaker proficiency on the relationships among intelligibility, comprehensibility, and accentedness in L2 Spanish, by Amanda Huensch, Charlie Nagle, Pages 571-585.

REPLICATION STUDY

■Wh-Dependency Processing in a Naturalistic Exposure Context: Sensitivity to Abstract Syntactic Structure in High-Working-Memory L2 Speakers, by Robyn Berghoff, Pages 586-598.

摘要

Text reading in English as a second language: Evidence from the Multilingual Eye-Movements Corpus 

Victor Kuperman, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada

Noam Siegelman, New Haven, CT, USA

Sascha Schroeder, University of Goettingen, Goettingen, Germany

Abstract Research into second language (L2) reading is an exponentially growing field. Yet, it still has a relatively short supply of comparable, ecologically valid data from readers representing a variety of first languages (L1). This article addresses this need by presenting a new data resource called MECO L2 (Multilingual Eye Movements Corpus), a rich behavioral eye-tracking record of text reading in English as an L2 among 543 university student speakers of 12 different L1s. MECO L2 includes a test battery of component skills of reading and allows for a comparison of the participants’ reading performance in their L1 and L2. This data resource enables innovative large-scale cross-sample analyses of predictors of L2 reading fluency and comprehension. We first introduce the design and structure of the MECO L2 resource, along with reliability estimates and basic descriptive analyses. Then, we illustrate the utility of MECO L2 by quantifying contributions of four sources to variability in L2 reading proficiency proposed in prior literature: reading fluency and comprehension in L1, proficiency in L2 component skills of reading, extralinguistic factors, and the L1 of the readers. Major findings included (a) a fundamental contrast between the determinants of L2 reading fluency versus comprehension accuracy, and (b) high within-participant consistency in the real-time strategy of reading in L1 and L2. We conclude by reviewing the implications of these findings to theories of L2 acquisition and outline further directions in which the new data resource may support L2 reading research.

The multidimensionality of second language oral fluency: Interfacing cognitive fluency and utterance fluency

Shungo Suzuki, Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan, Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK

Judit Kormos, Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria

Abstract The current study examined the extent to which cognitive fluency (CF) contributes to utterance fluency (UF) at the level of constructs. A total of 128 Japanese-speaking learners of English completed four speaking tasks—argumentative task, picture narrative task, readingto-speaking task, and reading-while-listening-to-speaking task—and a battery of linguistic knowledge tests, capturing vocabulary size, lexical retrieval speed, sentence construction skills, grammaticality judgments, and articulatory speed. Their speaking performance was analyzed in terms of speed, breakdown, and repair fluency (i.e., UF), and scores on linguistic knowledge tests were used to assess students' L2 linguistic resources and processing skills (i.e., CF). Structural equation modeling revealed a complex interplay between the multidimensionality of CF and UF and speaking task types. L2 processing speed consistently contributed to all aspects of UF across speaking tasks, whereas the role of linguistic resources in speed and repair fluency varied, depending on task characteristics.

Individual differences in the acquisition of language-specific and dialect-specific allophones of intervocalic /d/ by L2 and heritage Spanish speakers studying abroad in Sevilla

Brendan Regan, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, USA

Abstract This study examines the role of language proficiency and other individual factors (attitudes, input) in the acquisition of language-specific [ð] and dialect-specific [∅] allophones of Spanish intervocalic /d/ in the /ado/ context by L2 and heritage Spanish speakers during a short-term study abroad in Sevilla, Spain. Twenty L2-intermediate, 10 L2-advanced, and 10 Heritage-advanced Spanish speakers completed a reading task at the beginning and the end of the program. Based on an acoustic analysis, a mixed-effects linear regression model found that only L2-advanced and Heritage-advanced groups demonstrated more approximant-like [ð] over time. However, proficiency level interacted with attitudes and input. There were a few [∅] realizations, mostly produced by an L2-advanced speaker who also demonstrated metalinguistic awareness of the dialect-specific allophone. The findings imply that advanced (L2 and heritage) speakers with favorable attitudes toward the local variety are most likely to demonstrate gradient language-specific allophonic changes during a short-term SA program.

Anxiety, enjoyment, and boredom in language learning amongst junior secondary students in rural China: How do they contribute to L2 achievement?

Chengchen Li, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China

Li Wei, UCL Institute of Education, University College London, 20 Bedford Way, London WC1H 0AL, UK

Abstract Building on the control-value theory, the present study examined the independent and joint predictive effects of three emotions—enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom—on L2 achievement over time. The participants of the study were a group of junior secondary English learners in rural China, a population that has hitherto never featured in L2 learning research. Questionnaire data and achievement data were collected at four different time points (Time 1 – Time 4: T1–T4) from a large sample of 954 learners. Structural equation modeling results show that: (a) the three emotions at T1 predicted English achievement at T2 (one week after T1) and T3 (five weeks after T1) independently, while only enjoyment predicted achievement at T4 (nine weeks after T1); (b) when combined, enjoyment was the strongest and most enduring predictor across T2–T4, followed by anxiety predicting achievement at T2–T3 negatively, while boredom completely lost its predictive power across T2–T4.

An fMRI validation study of the word-monitoring task as a measure of implicit knowledge: Exploring the role of explicit and implicit aptitudes in behavioral and neural processing

Yuichi Suzuki, Kanagawa University, Kanagawa, Japan

Hyeonjeong Jeong, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan

Haining Cui, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan

Abstract In this study, neural representation of adult second language (L2) speakers' implicit grammatical knowledge was investigated. Advanced L2 speakers of Japanese living in Japan, as well as L1 Japanese speakers, performed a word-monitoring task (proposed as an implicit knowledge test) in the MRI scanner. Behavioral measures were obtained from aptitude tests for explicit (language analytic ability) and implicit (statistical learning ability) learning. Findings indicate that, although both L1 and L2 speakers recruited neural circuits associated with procedural memory during the word-monitoring task, different brain regions were activated: premotor cortex (L1 speakers) and left caudate (L2 speakers). The premotor cortex activation was weaker in L2 than L1 speakers but was positively correlated with the left caudate activation, suggesting that their grammatical knowledge, while less automatized, was still developing. Behavioral sensitivity to errors was predicted only by explicit language aptitude, which may play a key role in the automatization of grammatical knowledge.

Variability in native and nonnative language: An ERP study of semantic and grammar processing

Sarah Grey, Fordham University, Bronx, NY, USA

Abstract This study examined individual-level variability in N400 and P600 ERP correlates of native and nonnative language sentence processing of semantic and grammar information. Twenty-six native English-speaking learners of Spanish as a second language were tested. Participants completed sentence reading tasks in English and Spanish during EEG recording. The group-level results for grammar showed P600s in the native and nonnative language. For semantics, there was an N400 only in the native language. Individual-level ERP patterns revealed that, for native language semantics, about two thirds of participants showed N400s, but approximately one-third showed P600s. For native language grammar, approximately one third of participants exhibited N400s instead of P600s. Individual-level ERPs showed similar variability in the nonnative language for semantics and grammar, and N400/P600 variability in Spanish related to Spanish verbal fluency and grammar knowledge. This contributes knowledge of how nonnative and native language neurocognition compare regarding the processing routes that individuals use during comprehension.

Linguistic dissimilarity increases age-related decline in adult language learning

Job J. Schepens, TU Dortmund University, Dortmund, Germany

Roeland W. N. M. van Hout, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands

Frans W. P. van der Slik, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands and North-West University, South Afrika

Abstract We investigated age-related decline in adult learning of Dutch as an additional language (Ln) in speaking, writing, listening, and reading proficiency test scores for 56,024 adult immigrants with 50 L1s who came to the Netherlands for study or work. Performance for all four language skills turned out to decline monotonically after an age of arrival of about 25 years, similar to developmental trajectories observed in earlier aging research on additional language learning and in aging research on cognitive abilities. Also, linguistic dissimilarity increased age-related decline across all four language skills, but speaking in particular. We measured linguistic dissimilarity between first languages (L1s = 50) and Dutch (Ln) for morphology, vocabulary, and phonology. Our conclusion is that the L1 language background influences the effects of age-related decline in adult language learning, and that the constraints involved reflect both biological (language learning ability) and experience-based (acquired L1 proficiency) cognitive resources.

A longitudinal investigation of the effects of language instruction versus immersion on cognitive functions in young adult Chinese speakers learning English

Lihua Xia, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China

Thomas H. Bak, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland

Mariana Vega-Mendoza, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, Luleå University of Technology, Luleå, Sweden

Abstract The current study examined cognitive effects of two pathways of second language (L2) acquisition longitudinally in Chinese speakers learning English in an L2-dominant environment. Thirty-nine participants who attended an intensive 10-week English course (L2-instruction group) were compared to 38 participants who attended regular university courses taught in English (L2-immersion group). Four repeated assessments were conducted over 10 weeks: precourse (baseline) and postcourse assessments, and two interim assessments every 3 weeks. Both groups matched on background variables (e.g., intelligence) and showed comparable cognitive performance in all measures at the baseline. The longitudinal results showed a similar improvement in both groups for most cognitive measures, such as visual and auditory inhibition. The only significant group difference was observed in the auditory inhibition test, where the L2-instruction group outperformed the L2-immersion group. Taken together, our results suggest a specific effect of language experience and an overall effect of linguistic context on cognitive functions.

The effects of proficiency level and dual-task condition on L2 self-monitoring behavior

Ghadah Albarqi, Taif University, Taif, Saudi Arabia

Parvaneh Tavakoli, University of Reading, Reading, UK

Abstract The current study examined the effects of task condition (TC; single vs. dual) and proficiency level (PL) on self-monitoring of second language (L2) speakers. Data were collected from sixty-six female L2 learners of English performing two speaking tasks under two task conditions. While performance in the single-task condition involved only narrating a picture-based oral narrative, the dual-task condition involved performing the same oral narrative as well as a secondary task. Factor analysis, MANOVA, and two-way ANOVAs were used to examine the effects of PL and TC on a range of self-monitoring measures. The results indicated that the higher proficiency learners made significantly fewer filled pauses, repetitions, and hesitations, and a higher ratio of error correction and error-free clauses than the lower proficiency learners. These results suggest that with the development of proficiency L2 learners’ performance becomes more fluent, and a more active and effective monitoring process seems to be at work. Compared to the single-task condition, performance in the dual-task condition led to significantly more repetitions implying the increased demand of TC triggers more dysfluency. These results are discussed in relation to the L1 monitoring models.

Automated assessment of second language comprehensibility: Review, training, validation, and generalization studies

Kazuya Saito, University College London, London, UK

Konstantinos Macmillan, Birkbeck, University of London, London, UK

Magdalena Kachlicka, Birkbeck, University of London, London, UK

Abstract Whereas many scholars have emphasized the relative importance of comprehensibility as an ecologically valid goal for L2 speech training, testing, and development, eliciting listeners’ judgments is time-consuming. Following calls for research on more efficient L2 speech rating methods in applied linguistics, and growing attention toward using machine learning on spontaneous unscripted speech in speech engineering, the current study examined the possibility of establishing quick and reliable automated comprehensibility assessments. Orchestrating a set of phonological (maximum posterior probabilities and gaps between L1 and L2 speech), prosodic (pitch and intensity variation), and temporal measures (articulation rate, pause frequency), the regression model significantly predicted how naïve listeners intuitively judged low, mid, high, and nativelike comprehensibility among 100 L1 and L2 speakers' picture descriptions. The strength of the correlation (r = .823 for machine vs. human ratings) was comparable to naïve listeners’ interrater agreement (r = .760 for humans vs. humans). The findings were successfully replicated when the model was applied to a new dataset of 45 L1 and L2 speakers (r = .827) and tested under a more freely constructed interview task condition (r = .809).

Text recall and use of advance organisers in first and second language

Sara Dhaene, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium

Evy Woumans, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium

Abstract Previous research identified that studying texts in a second language (L2) as opposed to the first (L1) results in substantially weaker recall. We hypothesized that use of advance organizers (AOs) might attenuate this L2 recall cost by supporting L2 users in the construction of more solid memory representations. One hundred Dutch-English bilinguals studied two texts in either L1 or L2, and with or without the help of a mind map. The previously reported L2 cost was replicated, with lower recall scores in L2 relative to L1. Whereas L1 and L2 students were equally aided by AO use, the initial cost dissipated when comparing L2 test scores in the AO condition with those of L1 in the non-AO condition. We therefore conclude that employing AOs does not entirely diminish L2 disadvantages but brings L2 students up to the initial level of L1 students.

Proficiency, language of assessment, and attention to meaning and form during L2 comprehension: Methodological considerations in L2 replication research

Paweł Szudarski, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK

Sylwia Mikołajczak, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań, Poland

Abstract This study is a replication and extension of Morgan-Short et al.'s (2018) investigation into the role of attention in input processing by L1-Polish learners of L2-Spanish, with profi ciency and language of assessment explored as two key methodological factors. Our aims were twofold: to investigate learners’ comprehension in different conditions with their L2 proficiency controlled for, and to examine this process when learners were tested using different languages. Data from three trials (N = 136) were analyzed: Trial-English, Trial Polish, and Trial-Spanish, where comprehension was tested in English, Polish, or Spanish, respectively. Results showed that both L2 proficiency and language of assessment signifi cantly affected learners’ performance, with their scores being lower in the -n morpheme condition but only when comprehension was tested in English or Spanish. We discuss these findings both theoretically and methodologically, making recommendations on designing future replication studies and improving the generalizability of L2 findings across multiple research sites.

Effects of distributed practice on the acquisition of verb-noun collocations

Satoshi Yamagata, Kansai University Dai-Ichi Senior High School/Dai-Ichi Junior High School, Japan, and University of Birmingham, UK

Tatsuya Nakata, Rikkyo University, Japan

James Rogers, Meijo University, Japan

Abstract Given the importance of collocational knowledge for second language learning, how collocation learning can be facilitated is an important question. The present study examined the effects of three different practice schedules on collocation learning: node massed, collocation massed, and collocation spaced. In the node-massed schedule, three collocations for the same node verb were studied on the same day. In the collocation-massed schedule, three collocations for the same node verb were studied in different weeks. In the collocation-spaced schedule, participants encountered multiple collocations for the same node verb within a single day; at the same time, multiple collocations for the same node verb were repeated each week. To examine whether the knowledge of studied collocations could be transferred to unstudied collocations containing the same node, posttests included novel collocations that were not encountered during the treatment. Results suggested that the collocation-spaced schedule led to the largest gains for both studied and unstudied collocations.

A role for verb regularity in the L2 processing of the Spanish subjunctive mood: Evidence from eye-tracking

Sara Fernández Cuenca, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC, USA

Jill Jegerski, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA

Abstract The present study investigated the second language processing of grammatical mood in Spanish. Eye-movement data from a group of advanced proficiency second language users revealed nativelike processing with irregular verb stimuli but not with regular verb stimuli. A comparison group of native speakers showed the expected effect with both types of stimuli, but these were slightly more robust with irregular verbs than with regular verbs. We propose that the role of verb form regularity was due to the greater visual salience of Spanish subjunctive forms with irregular verbs versus regular verbs and possibly also due to less efficient processing of rule-based regular inflectional morphology versus whole irregular word forms. In any case, the results suggest that what appeared to be difficulty with sentence processing could be traced back to word-level processes, which appeared to be the primary area of difficulty. This outcome seems to go against theories that suggest that L2 sentence processing is shallow.

The additive use of prosody and morphosyntax in L2 German

Nick Henry, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA

Abstract This study investigates whether the use of prosodic cues during instruction facilitates the processing of German accusative case markers. Two groups of third semester L1 English learners of L2 German completed Processing Instruction (PI) with aural input: Learners in the PIþP group heard sentences that included focused prosodic cues; learners in the PI group heard sentences with monotone prosody. The effects of training were assessed through an offline comprehension task, a written production task, and an online self-paced reading (SPR) task. The results for the offline tasks showed that the groups were similar with respect to their offline comprehension and production. The SPR task showed that both groups used case markers to interpret word order online to some extent; however, only the PIþP group did so in all conditions. These results suggest that prosody does play a role in (morpho)syntactic processing, and that covert activation of prosodic structures can facilitate processing during online reading tasks.

"Bread and butter" or "butter or bread"? Nonnatives’ processing of novel lexical patterns in context

Suhad Sonbul, Umm Al-Qura University, Saudi Arabia

Dina Abdel Salam El-Dakhs, Prince Sultan University, Saudi Arabia

Kathy Conklin, University of Nottingham, UK

Abstract Little is known about how nonnative speakers process novel language patterns in the input they encounter. The present study examines whether nonnatives develop a sensitivity to novel binomials and their ordering preference from context. Thirty-nine nonnative speakers of English (L1 Arabic) read three short stories seeded with existing binomials (black and white) and novel ones (bags and coats) while their eye movements were monitored. The existing binomials appeared once in their forward (conventional) form and once in their reversed form. The novel binomials appeared in their experimentally defined forward form in different frequency conditions (two vs. four encounters) and once in the reversed form. Results showed no advantage for existing binomials over their reversed forms. For the novel binomials, the nonnative speakers read subsequent encounters significantly faster than initial ones for both frequency conditions. More importantly, the final reversed form also led to faster reading, suggesting that L2 speakers process the reversed form of a novel binomial as another encounter, ignoring the established order.

The elusive impact of L2 immersion on translation priming

Adel Chaouch-Orozco, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong

Jorge González Alonso, Universidad Nebrija, Madrid, Spain, UiT The Arctic of Norway, Tromsø, Norway

Jon Andoni Duñabeitia, Universidad Nebrija, Madrid, Spain, UiT The Arctic of Norway, Tromsø, Norway

Abstract A growing consensus sees the bilingual lexicon as an integrated, nonselective system. However, the way bilingual experience shapes the architecture and functioning of the lexicon is not well understood. This study investigates bilingual lexical-semantic representation and processing employing written translation priming. We focus on the role of active exposure to and use of the second language (L2)—primarily operationalized as immersion. We tested 200 highly proficient Spanish–English bilinguals in two groups differing in their societal language (immersed vs. nonimmersed) and amount of L2 use. L2 proficiency was controlled across participants, allowing us to disentangle its effects from those of L2 use. Overall, however, the immersion’s impact on our data was minimal. This suggests a ceiling effect for the influence of active L2 use on bilingual lexical functioning when L2 development is maximal. The present data provide relevant insights into the nature of the bilingual lexicon, informing developmental models.

A closer look at a marginalized test method: Self assessment as a measure of speaking proficiency

Paula Winke, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA

Xiaowan Zhang, MetaMetrics, Durham, NC, USA

Steven J. Pierce, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA

Abstract Second language (L2) teachers may shy away from self-assessments because of warnings that students are not accurate self-assessors. This information stems from meta-analyses in which self-assessment scores on average did not correlate highly with proficiency test results. However, researchers mostly used Pearson correlations, when polyserial could be used. Furthermore, self-assessments today can be computer adaptive. With them, nonlinear statistics are needed to investigate their relationship with other measurements. We wondered, if we explored the relationship between self-assessment and proficiency test scores using more robust measurements (polyserial correlation, continuation-ratio modeling), would we find different results? We had 807 L2-Spanish learners take a computer-adaptive, L2-speaking self-assessment and the ACTFL Oral Proficiency Interview – computer (OPIc). The scores correlated at .61 (polyserial). Using continuation-ratio modeling, we found each unit of increase on the OPIc scale was associated with a 131% increase in the odds of passing the self-assessment thresholds. In other words, a student was more likely to move on to higher self-assessment subsections if they had a higher OPIc rating. We found computer adaptive self-assessments appropriate for low-stakes L2-proficiency measurements, especially because they are cost-effective, make intuitive sense to learners, and promote learner agency.

Explicit Instruction within a Task: Before, During, or After?

Gabriel Michaud, Département de Didactique, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada

Ahlem Ammar, Département de Didactique, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada

Abstract This study addresses the effects of the timing of explicit instruction within the three phases of a task cycle (pretask, task, posttask) while considering learner’s previous knowledge. Eight intact groups (N = 165) of French L2 university-level students (4 B1- and 4 B2-level groups) completed two tasks. Groups were formed according to previous knowledge. Three groups received explicit instruction on the French subjunctive during the pretask, task, or posttask phase of each task. The control groups completed the task without prior instruction. Participants completed an elicited imitation test and a grammaticality judgment test as pretests, immediate posttests, and delayed posttests. Results showed that explicit instruction embedded in a task facilitates the development of explicit and implicit knowledge and that the efficacy of instruction is not significantly influenced by the timing at which it is provided or by the learners’ level of previous knowledge.

Sources and effects of foreign language enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom: A structural equation modeling approach

Jean-Marc Dewaele, Birkbeck, University of London, London, UK

Elouise Botes, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria

Samuel Greiff, University of Luxembourg, Luxembourg

Abstract The present study is among the first to investigate how three foreign language (FL) emotions, namely FL enjoyment (FLE), anxiety (FLCA), and boredom (FLB), are related to each other. It is the first study to consider how the three FL emotions are shaped by one learner-internal variable (attitude toward the FL), by two perceived teacher behaviors (frequency of use of the FL in class and unpredictability), and how all these variables jointly affect leaners’ FL achievement. Participants were 332 FL learners from all over the world studying a wide variety of FLs who filled out an online questionnaire. A close-fitting structural equation model revealed associations between FLE, FLCA, and FLB. Teacher behaviors positively affected FLE, with no discernible effect on FLB or FLCA. Only FLCA was found to have a (negative) effect on academic achievement. The study confirms the complex relationship between teacher behaviors and positive emotions in the FL classroom.

Second language productive knowledge of collocations: Does knowledge of individual words matter?

Suhad Sonbul, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah, Saudi Arabia

Dina Abdel Salam El-Dakhs, Prince Sultan University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

Ahmed Masrai, Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj, Saudi Arabia

Abstract Recent studies suggest that developing L2 receptive knowledge of single words is associated with increased receptive knowledge of collocations. However, no study to date has directly examined the interrelationship between productive word knowledge and productive collocation knowledge. To address this gap, the present study administered a controlled productive word test and a controlled productive collocation test to 27 native English speakers and 55 nonnative speakers (L1-Arabic). The tests assessed word and collocation knowledge of the most frequent 3,000 lemmas in English (1K, 2K, and 3K frequency bands). The test scores were analyzed using three mixed-effects models for the following outcome variables: collocation appropriacy, collocation frequency, and collocation strength. Results revealed productive word knowledge as a significant predictor of productive collocation knowledge, though with a small effect. This association was omnipresent regardless of frequency band. We discuss implications of these findings for L2 learning and teaching.

A longitudinal study into learners’ productive collocation knowledge in L2 German and factors affecting the learning

Griet Boone, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium

Vanessa De Wilde, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium

June Eyckmans, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium

Abstract This longitudinal study explored the roles of item- and learner-related variables in L2 learners’ development of productive collocation knowledge (L1 = Dutch; L2 = German; NLearners= 50). Learners’ form recall knowledge of 35 target collocations was measured three times over a 3-year period. The item-related variables investigated were L1-L2 congruency, corpus frequency, association strength, and imageability. We also explored the learner-related variables L2 prior productive vocabulary knowledge and L2 immersion. Mixed-effects regression modeling indicated a significant effect of time, congruency, and prior productive vocabulary knowledge on learners’ collocation learning. While learners’ knowledge of congruent collocations remained relatively stable after year one, knowledge of incongruent collocations increased significantly. Learners’ prior productive vocabulary knowledge was clearly associated with growth of productive collocation knowledge, but besides overall growth there were instances of attrition.

Network analysis for modeling complex systems in SLA research

Lani Freeborn, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Sible Andringa, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Gabriela Lunansky, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Abstract Network analysis is a method used to explore the structural relationships between people or organizations, and more recently between psychological constructs. Network analysis is a novel technique that can be used to model psychological constructs that influence language learning as complex systems, with longitudinal data, or cross-sectional data. The majority of complex dynamic systems theory (CDST) research in the field of second language acquisition (SLA) to date has been time-intensive, with a focus on analyzing intraindividual variation with dense longitudinal data collection. The question of how to model systems from a structural perspective using relation-intensive methods is an underexplored dimension of CDST research in applied linguistics. To expand our research agenda, we highlight the potential that psychological networks have for studying individual differences in language learning. We provide two empirical examples of network models using cross-sectional datasets that are publicly available online. We believe that this methodology can complement time-intensive approaches and that it has the potential to contribute to the development of new dimensions of CDST research in applied linguistics.

The importance of psychological and social factors in adult SLA: The case of productive collocation knowledge in L2 Swedish of L1 French long-term residents

Fanny Forsberg Lundell, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden

Klara Arvidsson, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden

Andreas Jemstedt, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden

Abstract The study investigates how psychological and social factors relate to productive collocation knowledge in late L2 learners of Swedish (French L1) (N = 59). The individual factors are language aptitude (measured through the LLAMA aptitude test), reported language use, social networks, acculturation, and personality. Multiple linear regression analysis showed that positive effects were found for LLAMA D (phonetic memory), LLAMA E (sound-symbol correspondence), reported language use, and length of residence (LOR). Furthermore, a negative effect was found for the personality variable Open-mindedness. These variables explained 63% (adjusted R²) of the variance, which represents large effects compared to other studies on individual factors. In sum, the findings confirm earlier results on the importance of language aptitude and language use for productive collocation knowledge. They also add evidence of the importance of personality and LOR. In sum, cognitive and social factors combine to explain different outcomes in adult L2 acquisition.

Revisiting the moderating effect of speaker proficiency on the relationships among intelligibility, comprehensibility, and accentedness in L2 Spanish

Amanda Huensch, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA

Charlie Nagle, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA

Abstract This report examines the potential impacts of task and proficiency on listener judgments of intelligibility, comprehensibility, and accentedness in L2 Spanish. This study extends Huensch and Nagle [Language Learning, 71, 626–668, (2021)], who explored the partial independence among the global speech dimensions for speech samples taken from a picture narrative task. Given that the type of speaking task used to elicit speech samples has been shown to impact the strength of the linguistic features contributing to the global speech dimensions and to explore the impact of task on the relationships among the dimensions, the current study followed the same procedure as Huensch and Nagle but employed a task in which participants responded to a prompt based on NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do Statements. The speech samples were elicited from instructed L2 Spanish learners of varying proficiency (n = 42) and were rated by a group of native-speaking Spanish listeners (n = 80) using Amazon Mechanical Turk. In general, the results were consistent with those reported in the initial study indicating a significant, positive, and consistent relationship between comprehensibility and intelligibility and a null relationship between accentedness and intelligibility. The limited differences between the studies’ findings are discussed considering the potential impact of task.

Wh-Dependency Processing in a Naturalistic Exposure Context: Sensitivity to Abstract Syntactic Structure in High-Working-Memory L2 Speakers

Robyn Berghoff, Department of General Linguistics, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa

Abstract This study replicates Felser and Roberts (2007), which used a cross-modal picture priming task to examine indirect-object dependency processing in classroom L2 learners. The replication focuses on early L2 learners with extensive naturalistic L2 exposure (n = 22)— an understudied group in the literature—and investigates whether these learners, in contrast to those in the original study, reactivate the moved element at its original position in the sentence. Bayesian multilevel regression is used to analyze the data. The results suggest that higher-working-memory participants did reactivate the moved element at its structural origin. By extending previous research to an understudied group, the study contributes to our knowledge regarding sensitivity to abstract syntactic structure in L2 processing.

期刊简介

Studies in Second Language Acquisition is a refereed journal of international scope devoted to the scientific discussion of acquisition or use of non-native and heritage languages. Each volume (five issues) contains research articles of either a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-methods nature in addition to essays on current theoretical matters. Other rubrics include Replication Studies, Critical Commentaries,State-of-the-Scholarship, Methods Forum, and Research Reports.

《第二语言习得研究》是一本国际性评审的期刊，致力于对非母语和传承语习得或使用进行科学性探讨。每卷（五期）包含定量、定性或混合方法的研究性文章，以及关于当前理论问题的论文。其他包括复制性研究、批评性评论、学术状况、方法论坛和研究报告。

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