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“尼克松冲击”50周年,日本央行原行长白川方明:是时候探索建立新的货币政策框架了

The following article is from 新金融评论 Author 白川方明


在去年的第二届外滩金融峰会上,日本央行原行长白川方明分享了上世纪80年代日本与美国争端升级过程中的日方经历,重点从宏观经济政策层面探讨了80年代末日本的大规模经济泡沫以及90年代随之而来的泡沫破灭和金融危机,并为包括中国和美国在内的所有国家总结了一些经验教训(传送门:日本“失去的二十年”皆因签了广场协议?日本央行原行长白川方明:我不认同而今年正值布雷顿森林体系解体50周年,白川方明在近日召开的第三届外滩金融峰会上提出,这正是反思当前经济发展和货币管理现状的良好时机。美东时间1971年8月15日晚,美国时任总统尼克松发布电视讲话,宣布美国不再维持美元和黄金之间每盎司35美元的国际交易价格,美元同黄金脱钩,彻底放弃了金本位,震惊了世界。“尼克松冲击”后,以美元作为基础货币的浮动汇率制时代拉开帷幕,国家可以更容易地调节货币的发行量,增加了金融政策的自由度;同时,跨境资本流动也变得更加容易,因资本剧烈流入流出而导致的货币危机和物价变动也更易发生。白川方明指出,在灵活汇率制度下,各国利率都趋近于零,但这并不代表各国真正拥有独立的货币政策立场。美国对很多国家的货币政策都产生了决定性影响,且这种情况由于“利率零下限”而变得更加严重,各国普遍面临货币政策空间不足的问题。他认为,传统的通货膨胀目标制管理方法逐渐失效,在不断变化的环境中,我们需要寻找新的货币政策框架,以适应复杂的社会经济系统。以下白川方明在第三届外滩金融峰会暨第五届浦山年会“全球经济复苏中的风险与政策应对”上发表主题演讲的完整版视频与中英文演讲实录


今年是“尼克松冲击”50周年,正是反思当前经济发展和货币管理现状的良好时机。美国决定暂停将外国持有的美元兑换成黄金,这为发达经济体在1973年采用灵活的汇率制度铺平了道路。如今,这一制度已经陪伴我们走过了50年。50年的发展过程中,有两个问题非常关键。
第一个问题是,各国是否真正享有独立的货币政策?这曾被很多人认为是灵活汇率制度的优点。著名的“开放经济的三元悖论困境”认为,开放经济体只能在独立货币政策、自由资本流动和固定汇率这三点中选择两点。而发达经济体对此的选择是:追求独立货币政策和不受约束的自由资本流动,放弃固定汇率。
第二个问题与第一个问题有关:完全摆脱了黄金约束的国家,能否找到成功的货币管理方法,真正获得独立货币政策的潜在好处?
各国普遍面临货币政策空间不足的问题
纵观今天的全球利率配置,很多发达经济体利率趋近于零,这与五十年前各发达经济体之间显著的利率差异,形成了鲜明对比。当然,利率水平相同并不意味着各国没有执行独立的货币政策。但各国是否真的想把本国利率设定为零?
美联储似乎真心认为需要通过零利率政策来增加通胀预期,以重新获得货币政策空间。那么欧洲央行和日本银行呢?他们是否真心相信零利率政策是本国最理想的安排?
这个问题有些复杂。一方面,欧洲和日本在执行零利率政策时,思路与美联储是一样的。他们的通胀率目标和美联储相同,也同样强调货币政策空间的重要性。但另一方面,鉴于美联储的立场,他们似乎没有其他选择。因为他们的主要关切之一,是提高利率后本国货币升值对经济增长和通货膨胀的潜在影响。实际上,即使执行灵活的汇率制度,美国对许多国家的货币政策立场依旧施加了决定性影响。
这种情况由于“利率零下限”而变得更加严重,这在五十年前是无法想象的。日本是典型案例。全球金融危机时,各发达经济体积极降低政策利率,但日本却几乎没有利率下调的空间,于是利差缩小,日元升值。因为日本国债收益率曲线相对于其他国家更加恒定,政策工具不足,无法抵御日元升值的力量。未来,随着货币宽松政策的延长,零利率将成为全球普遍存在的现象,所有国家都或多或少地面临货币政策空间不足的问题,这种情况近乎“以邻为壑”。
通货膨胀目标制逐渐失效
如何寻找新的货币管理方法?换句话说,在弹性汇率制度成为常态后,应如何评估宏观经济表现?各国最初尝试的货币政策框架是货币供应量目标制。这在最初似乎很有效,但很快就失败了,许多发达经济体遭遇了高通胀或滞胀的打击。但也正因如此,各国认识到了价格稳定的重要性,意识到了央行独立性是可持续经济增长的基础。这个想法在制度化后,就成为了通货膨胀目标制。这个框架运作得相当好,各国普遍采纳了关于宏观经济政策管理的乐观观点,世界经济随后表现良好,史称“大缓和”。这一成绩常常被归功于良好的货币政策,但这段良性时期很快就被严重的全球金融危机和随之而来的低增长所取代。
通货膨胀目标制并不是无用,至少它曾经对于某些国家、某些时期是有用的。关键问题在于,经济社会是复杂的适应性系统,即使最初看来很合适的规则,也不可避免地会逐渐失去效力。从这个意义上讲,全球金融危机暴露出一个事实:我们尚未找到在不断变化的环境中进行货币管理的适当方法。
通货膨胀目标制本质上是一个框架,这个框架可以将每个国家的货币政策行为与通货膨胀率联系起来,而且效果还算不错,但必须满足以下前提条件:
第一,破坏稳定的过度行为,具体表现为通货膨胀;
第二,消费者价格指数可以合理衡量通货膨胀;
第三,通货膨胀率由国内产出缺口决定;
第四,国内货币政策通过影响国内货币条件来确定国内通货膨胀率。
但这些假设正在逐渐失效:
第一,破坏稳定的过度行为是以金融失衡的形式出现的;
第二,在技术快速迭代的背景下,衡量通货膨胀率的任务变得更加艰巨;
第三,全球产出缺口(而非国内产出缺口)对通货膨胀率的影响正在增加;
第四,国内货币条件开始由全球货币条件决定,而全球货币条件又越来越多地受到主要国家,特别是关键国家货币政策的影响。
50年后我们又回到了原点,必须寻找一个新的货币政策框架,才能更好地适应当前的形势。为此,学术界和政策制定者都必须加倍努力
英文演讲实录:
This year marks the 50th anniversary of the “Nixon Shock”, which offers good opportunities for us to reflect on how we have progressed in terms of economic and monetary management ever since. The US decision to suspend the convertibility of foreign holdings of the US dollar into gold paved the way for the advanced economies to adopt flexible exchange rate system in 1973, which has been with us over almost fifty years. Two issues immediately come to my mind.
The first issue is whether or not countries could actually enjoy autonomous monetary policy, which was regarded as a virtue of flexible exchange rate system. As the famous “open economy trilemma” teaches us, we have to give up one of three good things: autonomous monetary policy, free capital flow and fixed exchange rate. Advanced economies opted pursuing the benefit of autonomous monetary policy and unfettered free capital movement by giving up fixed exchange rate.
The second issue, though related to the first, is whether or not countries, which was completely freed from a constraint of gold, could actually reap the potential benefit of autonomous monetary policy by finding new ways for successful monetary management.
On the first issue, what is the most revealing is the global interest rate configurations today: the interest rates are at or near zero in all advanced economies. This is in a stark contrast with fifty years ago, when interest rates dispersion among advanced economies were significant. Of course, the fact that the level of interest rates is the same does not necessarily mean countries are not conducting autonomous monetary policy. But can we confidently say that all individual country currently wants to set its interest rate at zero?
 The U.S. Federal Reserve seems to genuinely believe zero interest rates are needed to regain monetary policy room by ultimately increasing inflation expectations. How about the European Central Bank and the Bank of Japan? Do they believe from the bottom of the heart that zero percent is the most desirable for their own economies?
I guess the answer is mixed. On the one hand, their thinking behind zero interest is the same as that of the Fed. They have the same target level of inflation rate and stress the need for having monetary policy space. On the other hand, they actually do not have other choice, given the Fed's policy stance. Their main concerns seem to be about the possible exchange rate appreciation of their own currencies and its impacts on growth and inflation rate in case they raise interest rates. Even with flexible exchange rate system, it seems that it is the US monetary policy that importantly determines monetary policy stance in many countries.
This situation is aggravated by the existence of zero lower bound of interest rate, which was not imagined fifty years ago. A case in point is Japan. At the time of the GFC, advance economies lowered policy rates aggressively, while Japan had virtually no room for interest rate to decline, which led to yen’s appreciation because of narrowing interest differential. Japan was not equipped with necessary instrument to counteract such forces simply because of its constellation of yield curve relative to the rest of the world. But as monetary easing is prolonged, all countries have come to be faced with the same situation. Thus, zero-interests tend to be locked-in globally. This is close to the situation characterized by a sort of “beggar-thy-neighbor policy”.
What about the second issue of finding new ways for monetary management? To put it differently, how should we assess the macroeconomic performance after flexible exchange rate system became norm? Monetary policy framework that was first tried was money supply targeting. This seemed to work well initially, but rather quickly failed; many advanced economies suffered high inflation or stagflation. But because of that, eventually we learned the importance of price stability and central bank independence as the foundation for sustainable economic growth. This idea was institutionalized as inflation targeting. This framework worked pretty well, and optimistic views about macroeconomic policy management were spread. Good economic performance coined as "the Great Moderation" was often attributed to good monetary policy. But such benign period was quickly followed by the severe global financial crisis and ensuing low growth.
I am not saying inflation targeting was not useful. It used to be useful at least for certain countries or for certain period. The point is that since the economy and society are complex adaptive system, even the rule that did fit well inevitably will lose its validity gradually. In this sense, the development since the GFC laid bare the fact that we have not yet found an appropriate way for monetary management in a changing environment.
Inflation targeting is essentially a framework linking the conduct of monetary policy in each country to inflation rate. This works reasonably well, if the following conditions are met.
Ø First, the destabilizing excesses takes the form of inflation.
Ø Second, inflation rate can be measure reasonably well by compiling consumer price index.
Ø Third, inflation rate in each country is determined by domestic output gap.
Ø Fourth, domestic monetary policy set domestic inflation rate by affecting domestic monetary conditions.
But these assumptions are becoming increasingly questionable.
Ø First, the destabilizing excesses comes to take the form of financial imbalances.
Ø Second, it is becoming more daunting task to measure inflation rate on the back of technology change.
Ø Third, the influence of global output gap rather than domestic output gap on inflation rate is increasing.
Ø Fourth, domestic monetary conditions come to be determined by global monetary conditions, which are in turn increasingly affected by monetary policy in key currency country.
Fifty years on, we are back to the square one. To me, the need for searching for a new monetary policy framework is very clear. Both academics and policymakers have to work hard.




书讯




动荡时代

白川方明亲历日本经济繁荣与衰退的39年

中央銀行

セントラルバンカーの経験した39年

(日)白川方明  著

裴桂芬 尹凤宝    译

中信出版集团   2021年10月

 

日本央行原行长白川方明诚意力作

以日本央行行长身份、全球视野

反思日本高速增长结束后的经济和货币政策

还原重大金融历史现场

深挖日本经济衰退根源

比起欧美,我们更需要汲取日本的经验教训


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内容简介

日本经济曾因其活力和增长而备受世界羡慕,但在20世纪90年代初的泡沫崩溃后陷入长期低迷,并在2008年全球金融危机期间进一步下滑。白川方明自1972年入职日本央行,2008年到2013年担任行长,在这39年的央行生涯中,参与或近距离考察了日本高速增长结束后的重大经济和金融事件,包括20世纪80年代后半期的泡沫经济、90年代初的泡沫经济崩溃、2008年金融海啸、2009年欧洲债务危机、2011年东日本大地震并引发福岛核电站核泄露事故,还有围绕日元升值和通货紧缩的种种问题。


在这本书中,白川方明带领我们回顾了那个动荡的时代,站在货币政策决策者角度,以全球视野反思日本经济和货币政策,包括如何管理危机,如何与通货紧缩、日元升值、经济低迷做斗争,如何与政府、政治家、产业界、媒体等的沟通交流,等等。这些经验和教训对于当前中国经济从容应对不确定性、避免重蹈覆辙具有宝贵的借鉴意义。此外,作为一国央行行长,从更高视角对货币、财政政策进行解读,对于普通人读懂政策制定路径,理解大形势,捕捉新机遇,也具有重要启发。


作者简介

白川方明,日本央行第30任行长(2008—2013),日本经济学家。


1949年出生,1972年东京大学经济学部毕业,同年进入日本银行。1975—1977年由日本银行公派到芝加哥大学留学,获得经济学硕士学位。回日本后历任日本银行信贷机构局信贷机构科科长、计划局计划科科长、大分支行行长、审议负责人,2002年就任日本银行理事。理事任期结束后曾获聘京都大学公共政策学院教授。2008年3月出任日本银行副行长,2008年4月—2013年3月任行长,为该行第30任行长。2011—2013年任国际清算银行(BIS)理事会副主席。2013年9月成为青山学院大学国际政治经济学部特任教授,2018年9月起至今任青山学院大学国际政治经济学部特聘教授。


著有《现代货币政策:理论与实践》(日本经济新闻出版社,2008年)、《泡沫经济与货币政策——日本的经验与教训》(合著,日本经济新闻出版社,2001年)。




责编: 小野菌 宥朗 | 视觉:李盼 浩然
监制卜海森 李俊虎

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