刊讯｜SSCI 期刊《二语习得研究》 2024年第1-2期

STUDIES IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Volume 46, Issue 1-2, 2024

STUDIES IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION （SSCI一区，2022 IF：4.1，排名：11/194）2024年第1-2期共发文28篇。其中第1期共发文13篇，包括研究论文8篇，研究报告2篇，方法论坛3篇。主题涉及二语习得影响因素等。第2期共发文15篇，包括研究论文9篇，研究报告2篇，社论1篇，方法论坛2篇，重复性研究1篇。主题涉及大语言模型在二语习得中的应用、二语习得影响因素、 二语输入、二语教学等方面。欢迎转发扩散！

往期推荐：

目录

ISSUE 1

Research Article

■Age effects in spoken second language vocabulary attainment beyond the critical period, by Kazuya Saito, Pages 3-27.

■Scrutinizing LLAMA D as a measure of implicit learning aptitude, by Takehiro Iizuka，Robert DeKeyser，Pages 28-50.

■Can personality predict foreign language classroom emotions? The devil’s in the detail, by Elouise Botes、Jean-Marc Dewaele、Samuel Greiff、Thomas Goetz，Pages 51-74.

■The congruency effect in L2 collocational processing：The underlying mechanism and moderating factors, by Yingzhao Chen, Pages 75-95.

■How to present L2 Chinese words effectively for learning: Exploring learning outcomes and learner perceptions, by Xuehong（Stella）He，Shawn Loewen, Pages 96-118.

■Language proficiency modulates L2 orthographic learning mechanism: Evidence from event-related brain potentials in overt naming, by Yang Fu、Beatriz Bermúdez-Margaretto、David Beltrán、Wang Huili、Alberto Dominguez, Pages 119-140.

■Modeling effects of linguistic complexity on L2 processing effort: The case of eye movement in text reading, by Xiaopeng Zhang, Nan Gong, Pages 141-168.

■Measuring the development of lexical richness of L2 Spanish: A longitudinal learner corpus study, by María Díez-Ortega，Kristopher Kyle, Pages 169-199.

Research Report

■Understanding L2-derived words in context: Is complete receptive morphological knowledge necessary, by Batia Laufer, Pages 200-213.

■On the effects of task focus and processing level on the perception–production link in second-language speech learning, by Miquel Llompart, Pages 214-226.

Methods Forum

■Estimating reliability for response-time difference measures：Towards a standardized， model-based approach, by Bronson Hui，Zhiyi Wu, Pages 227-250.

■Meta-analysis of second language research with complex research designs, by Reza Norouzian, Gavin Bui, Pages 251-276.

■Evaluating evidence for the reliability and validity of lexical diversity indices in L2 oral task responses, by Kristopher Kyle, Hakyung Sung, Masaki Eguchi, Fred Zenker, Pages 278-299.

ISSUE 2

Research Article

■The validation crisis in the L2 motivational self system tradition, by Ali H. Al-Hoorie, Phil Hiver, Yo In’nami, Pages 307-329.

■Variability in heritage and second language writers’ linguistic complexity: Roles of proficiency and motivational beliefs, by Janire Zalbidea, Pages 330-353.

■Usage events and constructional knowledge: A study of two variants of the introductory-it construction, by Sakol Suethanapornkul, Sarut Supasiraprapa, Pages 355-377.

■Optimizing the input for learning of L2-specific constructions: The roles of Zipfian and balanced input, explicit rules and working memory, by Manuel F. Pulido, Pages 379-403.

■The effectiveness of note taking through exposure to L2 input: A meta-analysis, by Zhouhan Jin, Stuart Webb, Pages 404-426.

■The processing advantage of multiword sequences: A meta-analysis, by Wei Yi, Yanlu Zhong, Pages 427-452.

■Mapping the predictive role of MLAT subtests for L2 achievement through regression commonality analysis, by Philip S. Dale, Richard L. Sparks, Pages 453-477.

■Prosodic processing in sentences with ‘only’ in L1 and L2 English, by Rachida Ganga, Haoyan Ge, Marijn E. Struiksma, Virginia Yip, Aoju Chen, Pages 478-503.

■L2 learning outcomes of a research-based digital app for Japanese children, by Hee Jin Bang, Eric Setoguchi, Alison Mackey, Akiko Fujii, Pages 504-534.

Editorial

■Chatgpt in and for second language acquisition: A call for systematic research, by ZhaoHong Han, Pages 301-306.

Research Report

■Longitudinal development of second language utterance fluency, cognitive fluency, and their relationship, by Jimin Kahng, Pages 535-549.

■Inhibitory and facilitative effects of lexical neighbors in spoken word recognition: The role of language experience, by Mona Roxana Botezatu, Dalia L. Garcia, Pages 550-563.

Replication Study

■Testing for proficiency effects and crosslinguistic influence in L2 processing: Filler-gap dependencies in L2 English by Jordanian-Arabic and Mandarin speakers, by Alaa Al-Maani, Shayne Sloggett, Nino Grillo, Heather Marsden, Pages 564-580.

Methods Forum

■Do verbal and nonverbal declarative memory tasks in second language research measure the same abilities, by Phillip Hamrick, Christopher A. Was, Yin Zhang, Pages 581-596.

■When and how to use confirmatory composite analysis (CCA) in second language research, by Abdullah Alamer, Florian Schuberth, Jörg Henseler, Pages 597-616.

摘要

Age effects in spoken second language vocabulary attainment beyond the critical period

Kazuya Saito， University College London, London, UK

Abstract The current study set out to examine to what degree age of acquisition (AOA), defined as a learner’s first intensive exposure to a second language (L2) environment, mediates the final state of postpubertal, spoken vocabulary attainment. In Study 1, spontaneous speech samples were elicited from experienced Japanese users of English (n = 41) using storytelling and interview tasks. The samples were analyzed using a range of corpus- and rater-based lexical measures and compared to the speech of inexperienced Japanese speakers (n = 40) and native speakers of English (n = 10). The results showed that most experienced L2 learners tended to demonstrate nativelike proficiency for relatively easy lexical dimensions of speech (i.e., richness), but that AOA appeared to play a key role in predicting the ultimate attainment of relatively difficult lexical dimensions (i.e., appropriateness). In Study 2, the findings were successfully replicated with experienced L1 Polish users of English (n = 50).

Scrutinizing LLAMA D as a measure of implicit learning aptitude

Takehiro Iizuka, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, USA

Robert DeKeyser, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, USA

Abstract Since Gisela Granena’s influential work, LLAMA D v2, a sound recognition subtest of LLAMA aptitude tests, has been used as a measure of implicit learning aptitude in second language acquisition research. The validity of this test, however, is little known and the results of studies with this instrument have been somewhat inconsistent. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that researchers’ variable test instructions are the source of the inconsistent results. One hundred fourteen English monolinguals were randomly assigned to take LLAMA D v2 under one of three test instruction conditions. They also completed two implicit aptitude tests, three explicit aptitude tests, and a sound discrimination test. The results showed that, regardless of the type of test instructions, LLAMA D scores did not align with implicit aptitude test scores, indicating no clear evidence of the test being implicit. On the contrary, LLAMA D scores were negatively associated with scores on one implicit aptitude test, the Serial Reaction Time (SRT) task, but only in the condition where the instructions drew participants’ focal attention to the stimuli. This negative association was interpreted as focal attention working against learning in the SRT task. Implicit learning aptitude may be the degree to which one is able to process input without focal attention.

Can personality predict foreign language classroom emotions? The devil’s in the detail

Elouise Botes, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria

Jean-Marc Dewaele, University of London, London, UK

Samuel Greiff, University of Luxembourg, Luxembourg

Thomas Goetz, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria

Abstract Personality has been identified as a possible antecedent to emotions experienced in the foreign language (FL) classroom. However, contrasting results and differing personality models have resulted in ambiguous findings. This study set out to delve deeper into the role of personality as a predictor of FL emotions through a series of increasingly restrictive statistical models on a sample of n = 246 FL learners. The relationships between personality—operationalized as global and lower order factors in the five factor model—and the FL emotions of Foreign Language Enjoyment, Anxiety, and Boredom were examined. The global factors of Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Conscientiousness, and the lower order factors of Trust, Dutifulness, and Cheerfulness were significant predictors of FL emotions. However, the complexity of personality as a predictor variable is demonstrated in the intricacy of the results and as such the inclusion of personality in explanatory models of FL emotions ought to be approached with caution.

The congruency effect in L2 collocational processing: The underlying mechanism and moderating factors

Yingzhao Chen, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States

Abstract The congruency effect—that is, faster and more accurate processing of congruent multiword units, has been demonstrated in multiple studies. It is still unclear, however, what its underlying mechanism is, and how congruency may interact with other factors. Using an acceptability judgement task, this study examined the congruency effect in immersive (Experiment 1) and nonimmersive (Experiment 2) L2 learners’ collocational processing while taking into account L2 collocation frequency, immersive learners’ L2 use, their length and starting age of immersion, nonimmersive learners’ length of instruction, and their L2 proficiency. The study also tested whether L1 counterparts of words in L2 collocations were activated. Nonmmersive learners showed a congruency effect in both processing speed and accuracy. In contrast, immersive learners were affected by congruency only in processing accuracy. Higher L2 collocation frequency, greater length of instruction, and higher L2 proficiency did not reduce the congruency effect, whereas longer duration of immersion improved the processing of incongruent items. An effect of L1 lexical frequency was found, an indication of L1 activation. Results were discussed in light of how L2 proficiency and experiences changed the amount of L1 influence in L2 collocational processing.

How to present L2 Chinese words effectively for learning: Exploring learning outcomes and learner perceptions

Xuehong (Stella) He, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea, Wales, UK

Shawn Loewen, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA

Abstract Second language (L2) research on input manipulation has focused mainly on increasing the salience of target structures, but presentation formats of L2 input can be another important aspect for manipulation. This study compared the horizontal, vertical, and adjacent formats for presenting the characters, pinyin, and English meaning of L2 Chinese vocabulary, by recruiting 69 English native speakers to study 30 Chinese words in these formats. Learning outcomes were indexed with vocabulary gain scores from pretest to posttest. Learner perceptions of the learning process were recorded with ratings and reasons for preference among these formats. The quantitative results showed the adjacent format generally led to higher gain scores than the other two formats and that L2 proficiency also contributed positively. To learners, the adjacent format was the least preferred, but preference ratings were not associated with gain scores. The qualitative findings suggested format familiarity and layout features as main factors of learner preference.

Language proficiency modulates L2 orthographic learning mechanism: Evidence from event-related brain potentials in overt naming

Yang Fu, Hangzhou City University, China, Universidad de La Laguna, Spain

Beatriz Bermúdez-Margaretto, Universidad de Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain, Universidad de Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain

David Beltrán, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, Spain

Wang Huili, Alberto Dominguez, Hangzhou City University, China

Alberto Dominguez, Universidad de La Laguna, Spain

Abstract The present study investigates bilinguals’ capacity to rapidly establish memory traces for novel word forms in a second language (L2), as a function of L2 linguistic proficiency. A group of Chinese-English bilinguals with various English proficiency levels were presented with a reading-aloud task, consisting of 16 pseudowords and 16 English words repeatedly presented across six training exposures. Behavioral and neurophysiological data were collected, and modulations in the word-length effect across repetitions were measured as an index of transition from sublexical to lexical involvement. Results revealed that higher L2 proficiency was associated with decreased word-length effect on novel words, reflected in both naming latencies and early N1 and P200 brain responses. In contrast, lower proficiency learners appeared to engage in effortful letter-to-sound decoding processes, with higher attentional allocation to the letter sequence and greater use of sublexical processing across exposures. Our findings highlight the need to tackle specific grapheme-to-phoneme skills for efficient learning of L2, particularly in populations where the L1 is nonalphabetic.

Modeling effects of linguistic complexity on L2 processing effort: The case of eye movement in text reading

Xiaopeng Zhang, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Shaanxi, China

Nan Gong, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Shaanxi, China

Abstract This study examined how linguistic complexity features contribute to second language (L2) processing effort by analyzing the Dutch English-L2 learners’ eye movements from GECO and MECO, two eye-tracking corpora. Processing effort was operationalized as reading rate, mean fixation duration, regression rate, skipping rate, and mean saccade amplitude. In Study 1, the lexical, syntactic, and discoursal indices in 272 snippets of a novel in GECO were regressed against these eye-movement measures. The results showed that the one-component partial least square regression (PLS-R) models could explain 11%–37% of the variance in these eye-movement measures and outperformed eight readability formulas (six traditional and two recent cognitively inspired formulas based on the readers’ perception on text difficulty) in predicting L2 processing effort. In Study 2, the eye-tracking data from MECO were used to evaluate whether the findings from Study 1 could be applied more broadly. The results revealed that although the predictability of these PLS-R components decreased, they still performed better than the readability formulas. These findings suggest that the linguistic indices identified can be used to predict L2 text processing effort and provide useful implications for developing systems to assess text difficulty for L2 learners.

Measuring the development of lexical richness of L2 Spanish: A longitudinal learner corpus study

María Díez-Ortega, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA

Kristopher Kyle, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA

Abstract Research has indicated that lexical richness is an important indicator of second language (L2) proficiency. However, most research has examined written, cross-sectional English L2 corpora and does not necessarily indicate how spoken lexical use develops over time or whether observed trends are stable across L2s. This study adds to previous research on the development of spoken vocabulary by investigating lexical features of L2 Spanish learners over a 21-month period, using the LANGSNAP corpus. Multiple lexical richness indices used in previous studies were examined including lexical diversity, word frequency, word concreteness, and bigram strength of association. Linear mixed-effects models were run to examine changes over time. The results suggest that although some features of lexical richness (e.g., word frequency) see meaningful change over time, others (e.g., bigram T score) may not be indicative of L2 oral development.

Understanding L2-derived words in context: Is complete receptive morphological knowledge necessary?

Batia Laufer, University of Haifa, Israel

Abstract The study investigates whether comprehension of derived words in text context requires a complete understanding of word parts. It explores comprehension of derived words as a function of learner proficiency and contextual clues. Ninety English-as-a-foreign-language learners at three proficiency levels participated in three successive tests representing three clues conditions, absence of clues, availability of syntactic clues, and availability of syntactic and semantic clues. They had to supply the meaning of 22 derived pseudowords constructed with nonword stems and 22 frequent affixes—for example, stacement, gummful. The meanings of the nonword stems were provided. Test scores were compared by 3 (proficiency level) × 3 (clue condition) analysis of variance with repeated measures. The results showed effects of both variables, proficiency and clues. The largest increase in comprehension scores occurred with the addition of syntactic clues. The results imply that derived forms of familiar base words can be understood even when learners’ receptive morphological knowledge is not complete.

On the effects of task focus and processing level on the perception–production link in second-language speech learning

Miquel Llompart, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain, Friedrich Alexander University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany

Abstract This study presents a reanalysis of existing data to investigate whether a relationship between perception and production abilities regarding a challenging second-language (L2) phonological contrast is observable (a) when both modalities must rely on accessing stored lexical representations and (b) when there is an asymmetry in task focus between perception and production. In the original studies, German learners of English were tested on their mastery of the English /ɛ/-/æ/ contrast in an auditory lexical decision task with phonological substitutions, a word-reading task, and a segmentally focused imitation task. Results showed that accurate nonword rejection in the lexical decision task was predicted by the Euclidean distance between the two vowels in word reading but not in imitation. These results extend previous findings to lexical perception and production, highlight the influence of task focus on the degree of coupling between the two modalities, and may have important implications for pronunciation training methods.

Estimating reliability for response-time difference measures: Toward a standardized, model-based approach

Bronson Hui, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA

Zhiyi Wu, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA

Abstract A slowdown or a speedup in response times across experimental conditions can be taken as evidence of online deployment of knowledge. However, response-time difference measures are rarely evaluated on their reliability, and there is no standard practice to estimate it. In this article, we used three open data sets to explore an approach to reliability that is based on mixed-effects modeling and to examine model criticism as an outlier treatment strategy. The results suggest that the model-based approach can be superior but show no clear advantage of model criticism. We followed up these results with a simulation study to identify the specific conditions in which the model-based approach has the most benefits. Researchers who cannot include a large number of items and have a moderate level of noise in their data may find this approach particularly useful. We concluded by calling for more awareness and research on the psychometric properties of measures in the field.

Meta-analysis of second language research with complex research designs

Reza Norouzian, Oregon Department of Education, Salem, OR, USA

Gavin Bui, The Hang Seng University of Hong Kong, China

Abstract Meta-analyses play an instrumental role in informing second language (L2) theory and practice. However, current (i.e., classic) approaches to meta-analysis are limited in their ability to do so because they often fail to capture the complexity inherent in primary studies’ research designs. As we argue in this article, when complex L2 studies are represented by simplistic meta-analyses, the latter cannot reach its potential to contribute to the development of cumulative knowledge. To mitigate this issue, we first discuss the fundamental problems of the classic approaches to meta-analysis of complex L2 research. Second, we introduce an alternative meta-analytic framework that will address those problems. Third, we apply the meta-analytic framework discussed to a complex L2 domain. Fourth, we offer free software to facilitate the conduct of the alternative meta-analytic approach described. Finally, we discuss the implications of this alternative framework for making evidence-based recommendations to the relevant stakeholders.

Evaluating evidence for the reliability and validity of lexical diversity indices in L2 oral task responses

Kristopher Kyle, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA

Hakyung Sung,  University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA

Masaki Eguchi, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA

Fred Zenker, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA

Abstract Although lexical diversity is often used as a measure of productive proficiency (e.g., as an aspect of lexical complexity) in SLA studies involving oral tasks, relatively little research has been conducted to support the reliability and/or validity of these indices in spoken contexts. Furthermore, SLA researchers commonly use indices of lexical diversity such as Root TTR (Guiraud’s index) and D (vocd-D and HD-D) that have been preliminarily shown to lack reliability in spoken L2 contexts and/or have been consistently shown to lack reliability in written L2 contexts. In this study, we empirically evaluate lexical diversity indices with respect to two aspects of reliability (text-length independence and across-task stability) and one aspect of validity (relationship with proficiency scores). The results indicated that neither Root TTR nor D is reliable across different text lengths. However, support for the reliability and validity of optimized versions of MATTR and MTLD was found.

Chatgpt in and for second language acquisition: A call for systematic research

ZhaoHong Han, Columbia University

Abstract Applications of Artificial Intelligence (A.I.)-powered tools are by no means new to researchers and practitioners in second or foreign language learning. For one, chatbots, also known as conversation agents (CAs) or conversational A.I., have generated considerable interest in the field of applied linguistics (see, e.g., Fryer et al., Reference Fryer and Coniam2020; Huang et al., Reference Huang, Hew and Fryer2022; Ji et al., Reference Ji, Han and Ko2023; Xiao et al., Reference Xiao, Zhao, Sha, Yang and Warshauer2023; Zou et al., Reference Zou, Reinders, Thomas and Barr2023). CA platforms are language models in that they simulate real-world language use, to a certain extent. A recent scoping review by Xiao et al. (Reference Xiao, Zhao, Sha, Yang and Warshauer2023) suggests that CA-aided interaction carries the flavor of authenticity, is motivating, enjoyable for language learners, and is used by teachers as a supplementary source of practice for language learners and a tool for formative assessment. This research, according to Xiao et al. (Reference Xiao, Zhao, Sha, Yang and Warshauer2023), has been dominated by an interest in users’—learners’ more than teachers’—perceptions of their experiences, a sign likely of a commercially driven interest as well as an embryonic stage of academic research.

The validation crisis in the L2 motivational self system tradition

Ali H. Al-Hoorie, Royal Commission for Jubail and Yanbu, Saudi Arabia

Phil Hiver, Florida State University, USA

Yo In’nami, Chuo University, Japan

Abstract Concerns have recently been raised about the validity of scales used in the L2 motivational self system tradition, particularly in relation to sufficient discriminant validity among some of its scales. These concerns highlight the need to systematically examine the validity of scales used in this tradition. In this study, we therefore compiled a list of 18 scales in widespread use and administered them to Korean learners of English (N = 384). Testing the factorial structure of these scales using multiple exploratory and confirmatory factor-analytic criteria revealed severe discriminant validity issues. For example, the ideal L2 self was not discriminant from linguistic self-confidence, suggesting that participant responses to such ideal L2 self items is not driven by actual–ideal discrepancies as previously presumed but more likely by self-efficacy beliefs. We discuss these results in the context of the need to encourage systematic psychometric validation research in the language motivation field.

Variability in heritage and second language writers’ linguistic complexity: Roles of proficiency and motivational beliefs

Janire Zalbidea, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA

Abstract This study investigates the extent to which (a) Spanish heritage (HL) and second language (L2) writers’ linguistic complexity differs across register contexts and (b) Spanish proficiency and writing motivational beliefs differentially affect HL and L2 writers’ performance. Participants were 58 HL and 54 L2 Spanish learners who completed two persuasive writing tasks—the Email to Friend and Letter to Dean tasks—designed to be topically similar while eliciting different registers. Proficiency measures included an elicited imitation task (EIT) and a cloze test. Mixed-effects models indicated that both HL and L2 writers evidenced greater lexico-syntactic complexity in the Letter to Dean task; nonetheless, HL writers demonstrated more robust cross-register distinctions in syntactic complexity. The EIT and cloze test positively predicted syntactic and lexical complexity, respectively, although differential patterns were also observed by group. Intrinsic/interest and cognitive/linguistic value beliefs about Spanish writing emerged as positive and negative predictors of linguistic complexity, respectively.

Usage events and constructional knowledge: A study of two variants of the introductory-it construction

Sakol Suethanapornkul, Independent scholar

Sarut Supasiraprapa, Graduate School of Language and Communication, National Institute of Development Administration, Thailand

Abstract Usage-based theories hold that mental representation of language is shaped by a lifetime of usage. Both input to which first language (L1) and second language (L2) users are exposed and their own language production affect their construction learning and entrenchment. The present study investigates L2 users’ knowledge of two introductory-it variants, Adj-that (e.g., it is clear that …) and Adj-to (e.g., it is difficult to …). We probed the extent to which adjective–variant associations in an academic section of COCA and L2 users’ engagement with academic writing affected learners’ generation of adjectives distinctively attracted to the two variants. An analysis of cue-outcome contingency was conducted to establish adjective–variant associations, and an elicitation task was carried out, probing L2 users’ ability to generate adjectives when prompted with the variants (e.g., it is [blank] to). The participants were 84 graduate students in the United States, 44 from L1 English and 40 from L1 Thai backgrounds. The results indicated that the adjective–variant associations predicted L2 users’ generation of adjectives. However, academic writing engagement did not affect learners’ performance. The findings suggest that statistical information in the input affects L2 users’ constructional representation.

Optimizing the input for learning of L2-specific constructions: The roles of Zipfian and balanced input, explicit rules and working memory

Manuel F. Pulido, The Pennsylvania State University, USA

Abstract Usage-based theory has proposed that learning of linguistic constructions is facilitated by input that contains few high-frequency exemplars, in what is known as a skewed (or Zipfian) input distribution. Early empirical work provided support to this idea, but subsequent L2 research has provided mixed findings. However, previous approaches have not explored the impact that cognitive traits (e.g., working memory) have on the effectiveness of skewed or balanced input. The experiment reported here tested learners’ ability to develop new L2 categories of adjectives that guide lexical selection in Spanish verbs of “becoming.” The results showed that, when explicit rules are provided, low-working memory learners benefitted from reduced variability in skewed input, while high-working memory individuals benefitted from balanced input, which better allows for rule-based hypothesis testing. The findings help clarify the mixed findings in previous studies and suggest a way forward for optimizing the L2 input based on individual traits.

The effectiveness of note taking through exposure to L2 input: A meta-analysis

Zhouhan Jin, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada

Stuart Webb, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada

Abstract There has been increasing interest in the effects of note taking in second language (L2) research. However, no meta-analysis has been conducted to examine the relationship between note taking and learning through exposure to L2 input. We retrieved 28 effect sizes from 21 studies (N = 1992) to explore the overall effects of note taking as well as to examine the extent to which the effectiveness of note taking is likely to vary as a function of a set of potential moderators (i.e., learner variables, treatment variables, note-taking features, learning target, and measurement type). Results revealed that note taking had a small to medium positive overall effect on learning through exposure to L2 input (g = 0.56, 95% CI: 0.24–0.88). Subsequent moderator analyses revealed that variability in the size of note-taking effects across studies was explained by learner variables (context, region, orthographic scripts, institutional level), treatment variables (mode of input, material type), note-taking features (note-taking behavior, number of note-taking sessions, provision and type of note-taking strategy instruction, total length of instruction, opportunity to review notes), learning target, and measurement type. Based on the obtained findings, teachers are recommended to incorporate note taking in L2 classrooms. Pedagogical suggestions and directions for future research are also provided.

The processing advantage of multiword sequences: A meta-analysis

Wei Yi, Peking University, Beijing, China

Yanlu Zhong, Peking University, Beijing, China

Abstract This meta-analysis synthesized 35 English studies (130 effect sizes, N = 1,981) that employed online tasks to investigate the processing of multiword sequences (MWSs). We examined (a) to what extent MWSs enjoy a processing advantage over novel word combinations; (b) how such a processing advantage is moderated by statistical regularities (i.e., phrasal frequency, association strength), MWS type, and explicitness of experimental tasks; and (c) whether such moderating patterns differ between L1 speakers and L2 speakers. The results confirmed the processing advantage for most subtypes of MWSs, with effect sizes ranging from small to medium. For L1 speakers and L2 speakers, the processing advantage of MWSs was found across the continuum of phrasal frequency and association strength and varied. Interestingly, task explicitness moderated the processing advantage of MWSs but only for L2 speakers. Taken together, our results shed light on the understanding of MWSs as well as directions for future research.

Mapping the predictive role of MLAT subtests for L2 achievement through regression commonality analysis

Philip S. Dale, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA

Richard L. Sparks, Mt. St. Joseph University, Cincinnati, OH, USA

Abstract Despite the widespread use and effectiveness of the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) composite score in predicting individual differences in L2 achievement and proficiency, there has been little examination of MLAT subtests, although they have potential for illuminating components of L2 aptitude and the mechanism of prediction. Here we use regression commonality analysis to decompose the predictive variance from the MLAT into unique components for each subtest alone and for each possible combination of subtests (duos, trios, etc.) that may have shared variance. The results, from a longitudinal study of 307 U.S. secondary students during 2 years of Spanish learning, provide strong evidence for the role of literacy-related skills in all subtests and in predicting all L2 outcomes. These and other results support a view of L1 literacy and language skills leading to metalinguistic development, which in turn leads to stronger L2 aptitude and achievement.

Prosodic processing in sentences with ‘only’ in L1 and L2 English

Rachida Ganga, Utrecht University, The Netherlands

Haoyan Ge, Hong Kong Metropolitan University, China

Marijn E. Struiksma, Utrecht University, The Netherlands

Virginia Yip, Chinese University of Hong Kong, China

Aoju Chen, Utrecht University, The Netherlands

Abstract It has been proposed that second language (L2) learners differ from native speakers in processing due to either influence from their native language or an inability to integrate information from multiple linguistic domains in a second language. To shed new light on the underlying mechanism of L2 processing, we used an event-related potentials (ERP) paradigm to examine the processing of sentences with only in English by native speakers of English and advanced Dutch learners of English. Successful processing of sentences with only requires rapid integration of prosodic information with semantic and syntactic information. We found that L2 listeners showed native-like processing of the acoustics of contrastive pitch accents when adjacent to only. However, they needed more cues than L1 listeners to perform native-like in forming expectations for focus placement. Our results thus provide first ERP-based evidence for difficulty in the integration of information for focus expectation in difficult L2 constructs.

L2 learning outcomes of a research-based digital app for Japanese children

Hee Jin Bang, Age of Learning, Inc

Eric Setoguchi, Age of Learning, Inc

Alison Mackey, Georgetown University

Akiko Fujii, International Christian University

Abstract Digital educational game-based apps can be effective in helping young children develop language skills, particularly when paired with formal instruction. However, we need to know more about how educational games benefit learning in the absence of formal instruction, given children’s proficiency with and willingness to use mobile devices anytime, anywhere. This study uses a randomized controlled trial design to investigate the impact of a digital app—ABCmouse English—on L2 learning of seven- and eight-year-old Japanese children over a 16-week period. Pre- and post-assessments of the children’s English proficiency, together with an analysis of when and how they played with the app, were used to shed light on the relationship between the children’s in-app game choices and their language learning outcomes. Surveys and interviews with parents provide qualitative insights and information about the experiences of children and their families while using the app and its impact on their development as language learners.

Longitudinal development of second language utterance fluency, cognitive fluency, and their relationship

Jimin Kahng, University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS, USA

Abstract The development of L2 utterance fluency has been extensively researched, whereas that of cognitive fluency has rarely been examined. This study investigated the longitudinal development of L2 utterance and cognitive fluency and their relationship. Thirty-one Chinese learners of English completed speaking tasks and a set of tasks for cognitive fluency before and after 5 months’ study abroad. The results showed that participants made a significant improvement in mean syllable duration, end-clause pause frequency, and the speed of syntactic encoding and articulation but not in mid-clause pause frequency or lexical retrieval speed. Mixed-effects modeling confirmed a significant relationship between syntactic encoding speed and mean syllable duration and mid-clause pausing. Furthermore, the significant relationships were maintained over time. The findings highlight (a) the differences between mid-clause and end-clause pausing in terms of their developmental patterns and relationship with cognitive fluency and (b) a significant role of syntactic encoding speed in L2 utterance fluency.

Inhibitory and facilitative effects of lexical neighbors in spoken word recognition: The role of language experience

Mona Roxana Botezatu, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA

Dalia L. Garcia, San Diego State University/University of California, USA

Abstract The study evaluated whether the direction (inhibitory or facilitative) of the phonological neighborhood density effect in English spoken word recognition was modulated by the relative strength of competitor activation (neighborhood type) in two groups of English-dominant learners of Spanish who differed in language experience. Classroom learners and heritage learners of Spanish identified spoken English words from dense (e.g., BEAR) and sparse (e.g., BOAT) phonological neighborhoods presented in moderate noise. The phonological neighborhood was separately manipulated at word onset (cohort) and word offset (rhyme). Classroom learners were overall slower in recognizing spoken words from denser neighborhoods. Strongly active (onset) neighbors exerted inhibitory effects in both classroom and heritage learners. Critically, weakly active (offset) neighbors exerted inhibitory effects in classroom learners but facilitative effects in heritage learners. The results suggest that the activation of both within and cross-language neighbors should be considered in determining the direction of neighbor effects in bilingual lexical processing.

Testing for proficiency effects and crosslinguistic influence in L2 processing: Filler-gap dependencies in L2 English by Jordanian-Arabic and Mandarin speakers

Alaa Al-Maani, Al al-Bayt University

Shayne Sloggett, University of York

Nino Grillo,  University of York

Heather Marsden, University of York

Abstract This study expands on previous research into filler-gap dependency processing in second language (L2) English, by means of a replication of Canales’s (2012) self-paced reading study. Canales, among others, found that advanced L2-English speakers exhibited the same processing behavior that Stowe (1986) found for native English processing: On encountering a filler, they posited gaps in licensed positions and avoided positing gaps in grammatically unlicensed island positions. However, the previous L2 studies focused on advanced-level L2 proficiency and did not test specifically for first language (L1) influence. The present study compares two groups of intermediate-level L2-English speakers with contrasting non-wh-movement L1s, Jordanian Arabic and Mandarin, to investigate the effects of L1 influence and individual differences in proficiency. Our results provide evidence that at intermediate level, too, L2 filler-gap processing adheres to grammatical constraints. L1 did not affect this behavior, but proficiency effects emerged, with larger licensed filled-gap effects at higher proficiency.

Do verbal and nonverbal declarative memory tasks in second language research measure the same abilities?

Phillip Hamrick, Kent State University

Christopher A. Was, Kent State University

Yin Zhang, Kent State University

Abstract A growing body of evidence demonstrates that individual differences in declarative memory may be an important predictor of second language (L2) abilities. However, the evidence comes from studies using different declarative memory tasks that vary in their reliance on verbal abilities and task demands, which preclude estimating the size of the relationship between declarative memory and L2 learning. To address these concerns, we examined the relationship between verbal and nonverbal declarative memory abilities within the same task while controlling for task demands and stimulus modality, to estimate the upper bound of the relationship between verbal and nonverbal declarative memory. Results indicate that when task demands and stimulus modality are controlled, verbal and nonverbal declarative memory abilities shared a medium-to-large amount of underlying variance. However, future studies should exercise caution in appraising associations between declarative memory abilities and L2 learning until a more precise understanding of the underlying mechanisms is achieved.

When and how to use confirmatory composite analysis (CCA) in second language research

Abdullah Alamer, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia

Florian Schuberth, University of Twente

Jörg Henseler, University of Twente; Universidade Nova de Lisboa

Abstract Researchers in second language (L2) and education domain use different statistical methods to assess their constructs of interest. Many L2 constructs emerge from elements/parts, i.e., the elements define and form the construct and not the other way around. These constructs are referred to as emergent variables (also called components, formative constructs, and composite constructs). Because emergent variables are composed of elements/parts, they should be assessed through confirmatory composite analysis (CCA). Elements of emergent variables represent unique facets of the construct. Thus, such constructs cannot be properly assessed by confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) because CFA and its underlying common factor model regard these elements to be similar and interchangeable. Conversely, the elements of an emergent variable uniquely define and form the construct, i.e., they are not similar or interchangeable. Thus, CCA is the preferred approach to empirically validate emergent variables such as language skills L2 students’ behavioral engagement and language learning strategies. CCA is based on the composite model, which captures the characteristics of emergent variables more accurately. Aside from the difference in the underlying model, CCA consists of the same steps as CFA, i.e., model specification, model identification, model estimation, and model assessment. In this paper, we explain these steps. and present an illustrative example using publicly available data. In doing so, we show how CCA can be conducted using graphical software packages such as Amos, and we provide the code necessary to conduct CCA in the R package lavaan.

期刊简介

Studies in Second Language Acquisition is a refereed journal of international scope devoted to the scientific discussion of acquisition or use of non-native and heritage languages. Each volume (five issues) contains research articles of either a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-methods nature in addition to essays on current theoretical matters. Other rubrics include Replication Studies, Critical Commentaries, State-of-the-Scholarship, Methods Forum, and Research Reports.

《二语习得研究》是一本国际性的评审期刊，致力于对非母语和传承语习得或使用进行科学性探讨。每卷（五期）包含定量、定性或混合方法的研究性文章，以及关于当前理论问题的论文。其他包括复制性研究、批评性评论、学术状况、方法论坛和研究报告。

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