刊讯｜SSCI 期刊《二语习得研究》2023年第4-5期

STUDIES IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Volume 45, Issue 4-5, 2023

STUDIES IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION（SSCI一区，2022 IF：4.1，排名：12/194）2023年第4-5期共发文30篇，其中2023年第4期共发文15篇。论文主题包括个体差异、眼动实验、阅读流利度、跨语言影响等。2023年第5期共发文15篇。论文主题包括跨语言相似性、预测加工、测量评估、沉浸式语言学习、语言距离、MLAT测试等,欢迎转发扩散！（2023年已更完）

往期推荐：

目录

ISSUE 4

RESEARCH ARTICLE

■Comparing the longitudinal development of phraseological complexity across oral and written tasks, by Nathan Vandeweerd, Alex Housen, Magali Paquot, Pages 787–811.

■The effects of interleaved and blocked corpus-based practice on L2 pragmatic development, by Ying Zhang, Pages 812–837.

■Learning words with unfamiliar orthography: The role of cognitive abilities, by Marie-Josée Bisson, Pages 838–852.

■Individual differences modulate sensitivity to implicit causality bias in both native and nonnative processing, by Tingting Wang, Alison Gabriele, Pages 853–881.

■ Examining the effectiveness of bilingual subtitles for comprehension: An eye-tracking study, by Andi Wang, Ana Pellicer-Sánchez, Pages 882–905.

■Quantifying proper nouns’ influence on L2 English learners’ reading fluency, by Christopher Nicklin, Allie Patterson, Stuart McLean, Pages 906–929.

■Development of automaticity in processing L2 collocations: The roles of L1 collocational knowledge and practice condition, by Hyojin Jeong, Robert DeKeyser, Pages 930–954.

■Individual differences in self-regulated learning profiles of Chinese EFL readers: A sequential explanatory mixed-methods study, by Jiangping Chen, Chin-Hsi Lin, Gaowei Chen, Huafang Fu, Pages 955–978.

■Spanish heritage language learners’ motivational profile in the postsecondary classroom: Insights from psychological network modeling, by Janire Zalbidea, Diego Pascual y Cabo, Sergio Loza, Alicia Luque, Pages 979–1003.

■Variability as a functional marker of second language development in older adult learners, by Simone E. Pfenninger, Maria Kliesch, Pages 1004–1030.

■Effects of speaking task and proficiency on the midclause pausing characteristics of L1 and L2 speech from the same speakers, by Amanda Huensch, Pages 1031–1055.

RESEARCH REPORT

■Perceptual integrality of foreign segmental and tonal information: Dimensional transfer hypothesis, by William Choi, Rachel Ka-Ying Tsui, Pages 1056–1073.

REPLICATION STUDY

■Language proficiency modulates listeners’ selective attention to a talker’s mouth: A conceptual replication of Birulés et al. (2020), by Theres Grüter, Jieun Kim, Hitoshi Nishizawa, Jue Wang, Raed Alzahrani, Yu-Tzu Chang, Hoan Nguyen, Michaela Nuesser, Akari Ohba, Sachiko Roos and Mayuko Yusa，Pages 1074–1089.

■Predicting L2-Spanish fluency from L1-English fluency and L2 proficiency: A conceptual replication, by Susana Pérez Castillejo, Katherine Urzua-Parra, Pages 1090–1103.

METHODS FORUM

■Free classification as a method for investigating the perception of nonnative sounds, by Danielle Daidone, Ryan Lidster,Franziska Kruger， Pages 1104–1130.

ISSUE 5

RESEARCH ARTICLE

■The relationship between social network typology, L2 proficiency growth, and curriculum design in university study abroad, by Tripp Strawbridge, Pages 1131–1161.

■Language immersion effects in the use of tú and usted by L1-French and L1-European Portuguese learners of Spanish, by María Sampedro Mella, Claudia Sánchez Gutiérrez, Pages 1162–1185.

■Variability and individual differences in L2 sociolinguistic evaluations: The GROUP, the INDIVIDUAL and the HOMOGENEOUS ENSEMBLE, by Mason A. Wirtz, Simone E. Pfenninger, Pages 1186–1209.

■Co-text, context, and listening proficiency as crucial variables in intelligibility among nonnative users of English, by Veronika Thir, Pages 1210–1231.

■Cross-linguistic differences in predicting L2 sentence structure: The use of categorical and gradient verb constraints, by Duygu F. Şafak, Holger Hopp, Pages 1234–1260.

■Motivational dispositions predict qualitative differences in oral task performance, by Mostafa Papi, Yiran Zhang，Yang Zhou，Zachary Whiteside，Mijin Eom, Pages 1261–1286.

■Associations of students’ linguistic distance to the language of instruction and classroom composition with English reading and listening skills, by Nils Jaekel, Julia Jaekel，Markus Ritter, Pages 1287–1309.

■Mind the gap: Psycholinguistic and individual factors affecting expressive and receptive vocabulary skills in English-Gaelic bilingual children, by Vicky Chondrogianni, Morna Butcher, Pages 1310–1344.

■The prediction from MLAT to L2 achievement is largely due to MLAT assessment of underlying L1 abilities, by Richard L. Sparks, Philip S. Dale, Pages 1345–1369.

RESEARCH REPORT

■The relationship between poststimulus pause, learner proficiency, and working memory in an Elicited Imitation Task, by John M. Norris, Michelle Kim, Shoko Sasayama, Pages 1370–1387.

STATE OF THE SCHOLARSHIP

■The complexity epistemology and ontology in second language acquisition: A critical review, by ZhaoHong Han, Eun Young Kang, Sarah Sok, Pages 1388–1412.

RESEARCH REPORT

■Second language anxiety in conversation and its relationship with speakers’ perceptions of the interaction and their social networks, by Rachael Lindberg, Pavel Trofimovich, Kim McDonough, Pages 1413–1426.

METHODS FORUM

■Scale quality in second-language anxiety and WTC: A methodological synthesis, by Ekaterina Sudina, Pages 1427–1455.

■Construction and validation of a questionnaire to study engagement in informal second language learning, by Henriette L. Arndt, Pages 1456–1480.

■Reevaluating trials to criterion as a measure in second language research, by Nick Henry, Pages 1481–1505.

摘要

Comparing the longitudinal development of phraseological complexity across oral and written tasks

Nathan Vandeweerd, Université catholique de Louvain

Alex Housen, Vrije Universiteit Brussel

Magali Paquot, Université catholique de Louvain

Abstract This study builds upon previous research investigating the construct validity of phraseological complexity as an index of L2 development and proficiency. Whereas previous studies have focused on cross-sectional comparisons of written productions across proficiency levels, the current study compares the longitudinal development of phraseological complexity in written and oral productions elicited over a 21-month period from learners of French. We also improve upon the state of the art by including L1 data to benchmark learner levels of phraseological complexity. Phraseological complexity, operationalized as the diversity (no. types) and sophistication (PMI) of adjectival modifiers (adjective + noun) and direct objects (verb + noun), was generally higher in learner writing as compared to speaking. Over the study period, the sophistication of phraseological units increased slightly but developmental patterns were found to differ between tasks, highlighting the importance of considering task characteristics when measuring phraseological complexity.

The effects of interleaved and blocked corpus-based practice on L2 pragmatic development

Ying Zhang, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA

Abstract A handful of second/foreign language (L2) studies have examined the effects of practice schedules and reported the advantage of interleaved practice (i.e., practice multiple skills simultaneously) over blocked practice (i.e., practice one skill first and then proceed to the next one). However, no studies in the realm of L2 pragmatics have explored this theme. This study investigated the influence of interleaved corpus-based practice and blocked corpus-based practice on L2 pragmatic development. Sixty-three L2 learners of English from a university in China received instruction on two pragmatic features: suggestions and requests. After the instruction, they were randomly assigned to an interleaved-practice group (n = 31) or a blocked-practice group (n = 32). Results from multimedia discourse completion tasks on the immediate and delayed posttests showed facilitative and long-term effects of interleaved practice on pragmatic accuracy. Moreover, the results revealed positive and durable influence of blocked practice on fluency. Implications are discussed.

Learning words with unfamiliar orthography: The role of cognitive abilities

Marie-Josée Bisson, De Montfort University, Leicester, UK

Abstract Research suggests new foreign language (FL) words are learned more easily if their phonology follows the phonotactic rules of the native language. Very little is known, however, about the impact of orthography on FL learning. This study investigated the cognitive mechanisms supporting the learning of words with familiar and unfamiliar orthographies. Participants took part in learning and meaning recall tasks, as well as a series of cognitive tasks (short-term and working memory tasks and tasks assessing their phonological and acoustic abilities). Orthographic and phonological familiarity judgments were collected using another sample of participants. Using a mixed-effects model, the results showed that orthographic familiarity impacted FL word learning even after controlling for phonological familiarity. However, there were no interactions with cognitive abilities.

Individual differences modulate sensitivity to implicit causality bias in both native and nonnative processing

Tingting Wang, Department of East Asian Languages & Cultures, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA

Alison Gabriele, Department of Linguistics, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA

Abstract The question of whether L2 learners can use discourse cues online during pronoun resolution remains debated in the field. We examine one factor that has been argued to impact pronoun resolution in native speakers, implicit causality (IC) bias, a property related to certain verbs in which one of verb’s arguments are considered to be the cause of an action. We investigate whether individual differences modulate sensitivity to IC bias in both native English speakers and Chinese-speaking learners of English, examining whether variability is similarly explained in the two populations. Results from a sentence completion task and a self-paced reading (SPR) task show similar sensitivity to IC bias in both groups; reading times on the SPR task were also modulated by working memory and vocabulary knowledge. The findings suggest that L2 learners are successful in using discourse-level cues during processing and that variability is qualitatively similar in both learners and natives.

Examining the effectiveness of bilingual subtitles for comprehension: An eye-tracking study

Andi Wang, National Research Centre for Foreign Language Teaching Materials, School of English and International Studies, Beijing Foreign Studies University, Beijing, China

Ana Pellicer-Sánchez, IOE, UCL’s Faculty of Education and Society, University College London, London, UK

Abstract The present study examined the relative effectiveness of bilingual subtitles for L2 viewing comprehension, compared to other subtitling types. Learners’ allocation of attention to the image and subtitles/captions in different viewing conditions, as well as the relationship between attention and comprehension, were also investigated. A total of 112 Chinese learners of English watched an English documentary clip in one of four conditions (bilingual subtitles, captions, L1 subtitles, no subtitles) while their eye movements were recorded. The results revealed that bilingual subtitles were as beneficial as L1 subtitles for comprehension, which both outscored captions and no subtitles. Participants using bilingual subtitles spent significantly more time processing L1 than L2 lines. L1 lines in bilingual subtitles were processed significantly longer than in L1 subtitles, but L2 lines were processed significantly shorter than in captions. No significant relationship was found between the processing time and comprehension for either the L1 or L2 lines of bilingual subtitles.

Quantifying proper nouns’ influence on L2 English learners’ reading fluency

Christopher Nicklin, Rikkyo University, Tokyo, Japan

Allie Patterson, Tokyo Kasei University, Tokyo, Japan

Stuart McLean, Momoyama Gakuin University, Osaka, Japan

Abstract Proper nouns constitute a lexical class with special properties and are thus treated differently from other words by second language acquisition researchers. An assumption exists that even low-proficiency learners will find them unproblematic, yet research suggests this assumption might be misplaced. The present study involved two self-paced reading experiments designed to investigate proper nouns’ influence on Japanese university students’ reading fluency. In Experiment 1, participants were presented with 60 decontextualized sentences containing 30 proper nouns and 30 common nouns to determine whether they are processed in a similar manner. In Experiment 2, participants read another 60 sentences comprising a book chapter to explore the effects of repeated exposure to a set of proper nouns. The results indicated that proper nouns are processed in a similar manner to common nouns in terms of disrupting reading fluency. The implications for language learning pedagogy, in particular extensive reading, are discussed.

Development of automaticity in processing L2 collocations: The roles of L1 collocational knowledge and practice condition

Hyojin Jeong, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA and Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul, Korea

Robert DeKeyser, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA

Abstract This study examined the development of automaticity in processing L2 collocations, and the roles of L1 collocational knowledge and practice conditions in the development process. Korean learners of English were assigned to one of two practice conditions (practice in identical or varied contexts). The learning gains for word combinations with and without equivalent counterparts in the L1 (L1-only and L2-only collocations) were assessed using response times (RTs) and coefficients of variation (CV) from a phrasal decision task. The results demonstrated that the learners in both groups showed significantly improved collocation processing for both types of items in terms of speed (RT) and automaticity (CV) over time. The RT and CV analyses indicated that both groups’ improvements in collocation processing in the later stages of learning were associated with automatization. Interestingly, L1 collocational knowledge played a facilitative role in processing speed only in the early stages of learning. No reliable evidence for the differential effects of the two types of practice conditions on developing automaticity in collocation processing was found.

Individual differences in self-regulated learning profiles of Chinese EFL readers: A sequential explanatory mixed-methods study

Jiangping Chen, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong

Chin-Hsi Lin, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong

Gaowei Chen, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong

Huafang Fu, Yuhang Senior High School, Hangzhou, China

Abstract This study explored the latent profiles of self-regulated learning (SRL) strategies (cognitive, metacognitive, and motivational regulation) endorsed by Chinese English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) readers in a high-stakes testing environment, and also their associations with individual factors (gender, grade, reading proficiency, and motivational beliefs). With a sequential explanatory mixed-methods design, students in grades 11 and 12 (n = 1,113) completed a reading comprehension test and a questionnaire regarding their strategy use and individual factors, and some (n = 16) were randomly selected for follow-up semi-structured interviews. Findings revealed three SRL profiles, characterized by high, medium, and low levels of SRL-strategy use. Self-efficacy and extrinsic motivation most powerfully predicted an individual’s profile membership; all the intrinsic and extrinsic motivation variables were significantly higher for learners from the higher strategy-use profile. Moreover, reading proficiency did not significantly predict profile membership, but more self-regulated students still achieved higher reading scores as a group tendency.

Spanish heritage language learners’ motivational profile in the postsecondary classroom: Insights from psychological network modeling

Janire Zalbidea，Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States

Diego Pascual y Cabo，University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States

Sergio Loza，University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, United States

Alicia Luque, Universidad Nebrija, Madrid, Spain

Abstract This study sought to investigate the psychological network structure of adult Spanish heritage language (HL) learners’ motivational profile by considering interconnections among the following variables: the possible HL selves, family influence, intended HL learning effort, HL achievement goal orientations, HL enjoyment, HL anxiety, perceived classroom environment, and critical language awareness. In line with a complex systems perspective, mutually interdependent connections among variables were estimated using psychological network modeling. The analysis revealed a majority of positive associations among the system constituents, with nodes representing the possible HL selves, HL enjoyment, and intended HL learning effort holding the most central influence on the network. Results also shed light on the unexplored relevance of critical language awareness in understanding HL learners’ motivational and emotional dispositions. We discuss the theoretical, pedagogical, and methodological implications of the study, highlighting the potential of network analysis for providing insights into complex psychological phenomena.

Variability as a functional marker of second language development in older adult learners

Simone E. Pfenninger，University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland

Maria Kliesch, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland

Abstract This longitudinal study with time-serial data examines for the first time whether different types of intraindividual variation in second language (L2) performance and cognitive functioning are related, and how and when they influence L2 development longitudinally in older adulthood. We analyzed the L2 development of 26 German-speaking adults aged 62–79 who were taught L2 English for 2 × 90 minutes per week over 6 months. At each of the 15 measurements, the participants completed three L2 tasks and eight cognitive measures, and they answered open-ended questions about socioaffective variables such as L2 motivation. Results of generalized additive mixed models and qualitative content analyses showed, inter alia, that L2 variability—rather than inconsistency or dispersion—had a (nonlinear) effect on L2 growth, being especially large during periods of rapid development. The qualitative analyses revealed a blended operation of internal and external states being associated with periods of significant L2 growth.

Effects of speaking task and proficiency on the midclause pausing characteristics of L1 and L2 speech from the same speakers

Amanda Huensch, University of Pittsburgh, PA, USA

Abstract This study explored the effect of speaking task on midclause pausing characteristics in the L1 and L2 speech of the same speakers to gain further insights into the potential relationship between pause location and stages of speech production. Participants included English L1 learners of L2 French (n = 29) or Spanish (n = 27) from the publicly available, longitudinal LANGSNAP corpus. Participants completed two oral tasks in their L1 and L2: a picture-based narrative and a semistructured interview. The rate, duration, and proportion of midclause pauses were compared between tasks in the L1 as well as in the L2 before and during residence abroad. In the L1, results indicated more fluent performance in the narrative task except for rate. When speaking in their L2, participants showed improvement on each measure in the narrative task but ultimately remained less fluent in their L2 in comparison to their L1. In the interview task, the only measure of midclause pausing that consistently differentiated L1 from L2 speech was midclause pause rate. The findings call for a nuanced interpretation of connections between midclause pausing and formulation and suggest that midclause pause rate is least influenced by speaking task.

Perceptual integrality of foreign segmental and tonal information: Dimensional transfer hypothesis

William Choi, Academic Unit of Human Communication, Development, and Information Sciences, the University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong

Rachel Ka-Ying Tsui, Laboratory for Language Development, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Saitama, Japan

Abstract This study investigates whether (a) Cantonese and (b) English listeners integrally or independently perceive Thai tone and segmental information. Listeners completed a modified AX discrimination task that contained a control block (without segmental variation) and an orthogonal block (with segmental variation). Relative to their own performance in the control block, the Cantonese listeners showed increased response time, decreased proportion of accuracy, and decreased sensitivity index in the orthogonal block. By contrast, the English listeners showed similar response time, proportion of accuracy, and sensitivity index across the two blocks. These reflect integral processing among the Cantonese but not the English listeners. This finding motivates the dimensional transfer hypothesis. The hypothesis posits that L1 perceptual experience shapes the perceptual integrality (or nonintegrality) of foreign suprasegmental and segmental information.

Language proficiency modulates listeners’ selective attention to a talker’s mouth: A conceptual replication of Birulés et al. (2020)

Theres Grüter, Jieun Kim, Hitoshi Nishizawa, Jue Wang, Raed Alzahrani, Yu-Tzu Chang, Hoan Nguyen, Michaela Nuesser, Akari Ohba, Sachiko Roos and Mayuko Yusa, University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa, Honolulu, HI, United States

Abstract  This study presents a conceptual replication of Birulés et al.’s (2020, Experiment 2) investigation of native and nonnative listeners’ selective attention to a talker’s mouth with the goal of better understanding the potentially modulating role of proficiency in listeners’ reliance on audiovisual speech cues. Listeners’ eye gaze was recorded while watching two short videos. Findings from one of the videos replicated results from the original study, showing greater attention to the talker’s mouth among L2 than L1 listeners. In both videos, L2 proficiency modulated attention, with more fixations on the mouth among lower proficiency listeners, an effect predicted but not observed in the original study. Collectively, these laboratory-based findings highlight the role of visual speech cues in L2 listening and present evidence that listeners with more limited proficiency may be especially reliant on such cues. These observations warrant future investigations of the benefits of visual speech cues in instructional and assessment contexts.

Predicting L2-Spanish fluency from L1-English fluency and L2 proficiency: A conceptual replication

Susana Pérez Castillejo, Katherine Urzua-Parra, University of St. Thomas, St. Paul, MN, USA

Abstract This study conceptually replicated Huensch and Tracy-Ventura’s (2017) analysis of the relationship between L1 and L2 utterance fluency with adult L1-English learners of Spanish. Data from 88 participants were analyzed to explore the proportion of the variance in L2 fluency measures that can be attributed to the corresponding L1 measures, and the relative weights of L1 fluency and L2 proficiency as predictors of L2 fluency. This study applied the same fluency and proficiency constructs and operationalizations as the original study, but differed in task type and learners’ L2 proficiency. Results were most similar for speed and repair frequency, and for silent pause duration. Findings concerning silent and filled pause frequency differed. Combined, the studies show that some L1-L2 fluency relationships are relatively stable across proficiency levels, task type, and learning context.

Free classification as a method for investigating the perception of nonnative sounds

Danielle Daidone，Ryan Lidster, University of North Carolina Wilmington, NC, United States

Franziska Kruger，Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, United States

Abstract Our study proposes the use of a free classification task for investigating the dimensions used by listeners in their perception of nonnative sounds and for predicting the perceptual discriminability of nonnative contrasts. In a free classification task, participants freely group auditory stimuli based on their perceived similarity. The results can be used to predict discriminability and can be compared to various acoustic or phonological dimensions to determine the relevant cues for listeners. The viability of this method was examined for both a segmental contrast (German vowels) and a nonsegmental contrast (Finnish phonemic length). Perceptual similarity data from the free classification task accurately predicted discriminability in an oddity task and separately provided rich information on how the perceptual space is shaped. These results suggest that a free classification task and related analyses are informative and replicable methods for examining nonnative speech perception.

The relationship between social network typology, L2 proficiency growth, and curriculum design in university study abroad

Tripp Strawbridge, Santa Clara University, Santa Clara, CA, USA

Abstract This study utilizes social network analysis to characterize a typology of study abroad sojourner experience, detailing the relationship of social experience types to second language (L2) proficiency growth and study abroad program design. In contrast with previous research, the study performs a quantitative analysis of structural and compositional network features to identify a typology of social networks. Participants were 30 L2 Spanish learners from five US-based semester-long university study abroad programs in Spain. Social network data were collected using a social network questionnaire, while L2 development was measured through an elicited imitation task. Results identify four prominent social network patterns, characterized by varying levels of Spanish language use, emotional proximity to contacts, frequency of interaction, contact status as program peer or host community member, and network cohesion. L2 proficiency development was significantly affected by these patterns, which were shaped by the contrasting curricular models of study abroad programs.

Language immersion effects in the use of tú and usted by L1-French and L1-European Portuguese learners of Spanish

María Sampedro Mella, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain

Claudia Sánchez Gutiérrez, University of California, Davis, CA, USA

Abstract The use of the Spanish pronouns of address tú and usted is an intricate matter for L2 learners due to the many factors that influence their selection at the discourse and interactional level. Although the literature has traditionally focused on the challenges experienced by L1-English learners of L2-Spanish in learning these forms, less is known about speakers whose L1s also present similar (but not identical) pronouns of address. This study thus analyzes the use of tú and usted by L1-French and L1-European Portuguese learners who learn Spanish either in their home countries (i.e., France and Portugal) or in Spain as part of a study-abroad experience. Results indicate that learners in both L1 groups used tú more often while in Spain than in their home country. Additionally, students in immersion started adopting more similar criteria to those of L1-Spanish speakers in determining whether tú or usted would be appropriate in certain contexts.

Variability and individual differences in L2 sociolinguistic evaluations: The GROUP, the INDIVIDUAL and the HOMOGENEOUS ENSEMBLEMason A. Wirtz, University of Salzburg, Department of German Language and Literatures, Salzburg, AustriaSimone E. Pfenninger, University of Zurich, English Department, Zurich, Switzerland

Abstract This study is the first to investigate subject-level variability in sociolinguistic evaluative judgements by 30 adult L2 German learners and explore whether the observed variability is characterizable as a function of individual differences in proficiency, exposure, and motivation. Because group-level estimates did not paint an accurate picture of the individual, we propose methods capable of integrating population-level estimates with person- and ensemble-centered approaches so as to reconcile generalizability and individuality. Using random effects from Bayesian mixed-effects models, we found that global subject-level variability in evaluative judgements was not predicted by individual differences. By building homogeneous ensembles (i.e., subgroups of individuals with similar evaluative judgements), however, it was possible to assess whether ensembles were characteristic of certain levels of individual differences. This ensemble-centered approach presents an innovative way to address the group-to-individual generalizability issue in cross-sectional data and transcend individual variability in order to make tentative generalizations of individual cases to wider populations.

Co-text, context, and listening proficiency as crucial variables in intelligibility among nonnative users of English

Veronika Thir, University of Passau, English Language and Culture, Passau, Germany

Abstract Research on intelligibility in international encounters has long focused on issues of pronunciation to the detriment of factors such as linguistic co-text and extralinguistic context, which are comparatively well-studied variables in intelligibility research concerning L1 listeners. This paper seeks to expand the scope of international intelligibility research in this respect by reporting on a large-scale study involving 423 nonnative listeners at different proficiency levels, who transcribed words spoken with another nonnative accent under four conditions that varied in the availability of syntactic, semantic, and schematic cues. The results suggest that co-text and context as well as listening proficiency are crucial variables that ought to receive greater attention in research on international intelligibility. The pedagogical implications of these findings are addressed as well.

Cross-linguistic differences in predicting L2 sentence structure: The use of categorical and gradient verb constraints

Duygu F. Şafak, Holger Hopp, English and American Studies, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Germany

Abstract This study investigates whether cross-linguistic differences affect how adult second language (L2) learners use different types of verb subcategorization information for prediction in real-time sentence comprehension. Using visual world eye-tracking, we tested if first language (L1) German and L1 Turkish intermediate-to-advanced learners of L2 English make use of categorical and gradient probabilistic selectional information of ditransitive verbs to predict whether the verbs would be followed by prepositional-object or double-object dative constructions. L1 German learners used both categorical (“pay/*donate the woman the money”) and gradient (“pay/#send the woman the money”) constraints for prediction in a target-like manner. In contrast, L1 Turkish learners were delayed in recruiting categorical verb information and were only selectively sensitive to gradient verb information. We argue that target-like predictive processing across categorical and gradient verb information is attainable for L2 learners, but differences in L1-L2 word order may curtail the utility of prediction by verb subcategorization information in L2 processing.

Motivational dispositions predict qualitative differences in oral task performance

Mostafa Papi, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, United States

Mijin Eom, Chuncheon National University of Education, Chuncheon, Gangwon-do, South Korea

Yiran Zhang，Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China

Yang Zhou，Guizhou Normal University, Guiyang, Guizhou, China

Zachary Whiteside，Independent scholar

Abstract The study examined how learners’ motivational dispositions predict the complexity, accuracy, fluency of their oral task performance and their overall second language proficiency. Eighty-one speakers of English as a second language in the United States completed a regulatory focus and a regulatory mode questionnaire, an oral interview task, and a picture description task. Regression analyses showed a meaningful pattern of results. The assessment mode (concerned with analysis, evaluation, and comparison) contributed to syntactic and lexical complexity, the reduction of dysfluencies, and overall English proficiency, whereas the locomotion mode (concerned with acting without deliberation) positively predicted the speed measure of fluency and the total number of errors. The prevention focus (concerned with stability, security, and safety) negatively predicted lexical sophistication, whereas the promotion focus (concerned with advancement, accomplishments, and growth) predicted overall English proficiency. Theoretical and instructional implications were discussed.

Associations of students’ linguistic distance to the language of instruction and classroom composition with English reading and listening skills

Nils Jaekel, University of Oulu, Finland

Julia Jaekel，University of Oulu, Finland

Markus Ritter, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Germany

Abstract Globally classrooms are increasingly linguistically diverse. Research often oversimplifies lived linguistic heterogeneity as binary variables: native versus non-native. Linguistic distance (LD) measures allow a fine-grained operationalization of linguistic diversity in foreign language education. This study investigated associations of cognate LDs of students’ home languages and classroom heterogeneity with English as a Foreign Language skills. Data were collected from a diverse sample of 5,130 Year 5 students in Germany. Mixed-effects linear models confirmed our hypotheses that higher individual LDs and a higher proportion of multilingual learners per classroom were both independently associated with lower English proficiency. Multilingual learners with higher cognate LDs to English and students in more linguistically heterogeneous classrooms had lower English proficiency. The results emphasize the need to assess LD in research to better differentiate between students. Foreign language classrooms seem not to address linguistic diversity adequately and need to readjust their focus to better meet multilingual learners’ needs.

Mind the gap: Psycholinguistic and individual factors affecting expressive and receptive vocabulary skills in English-Gaelic bilingual children

Vicky Chondrogianni, Morna Butcher,  University of Edinburgh, UK

Abstract This study investigated the psycholinguistic and child-related variables that modulate vocabulary development and the so-called receptive–expressive gap in child L2 learners of Gaelic with English as their L1. In total, 50 6- to 8-year-old English-Gaelic bilingual children attending Gaelic-medium immersion education were administered the English and the Gaelic Crosslinguistic Receptive and Expressive Lexical Tasks (CLTs). On the Gaelic CLT, children performed better on nouns than verbs. Accuracy was modulated by item-related variables such as the estimated age when a word is acquired and its morphophonological complexity. The receptive–expressive gap was larger in the minority L2 than in the majority L1 and did not narrow after 1 year of schooling. The gap was smaller for nouns than verbs in English but not in Gaelic. Exposure to English differentially affected the receptive–expressive gap across languages. This study offers new insights into the psycholinguistic and individual factors affecting the receptive–expressive gap in bilingual children in immersion education.

The prediction from MLAT to L2 achievement is largely due to MLAT assessment of underlying L1 abilities

Richard L. Sparks, Mt. St. Joseph University, Cincinnati, OH, USA

Philip S. Dale, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA

Abstract Widespread use of the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) in L2 studies of individual differences implicitly assumes that L2 aptitude is a distinct cognitive facet. There is considerable evidence for prediction from L1 abilities to L2 learning. In this longitudinal study, L1-MLAT-L2 relations were examined in 307 US secondary students based on six L1 and six L2 measures of language and literacy, and the MLAT. Mediation and regression analyses revealed that each L1 measure individually predicted all L2 scores and MLAT; the L1 measures collectively substantially predicted MLAT scores; MLAT is a significant but moderate mediator of prediction from L1 to L2 scores; and prediction from MLAT to L2 scores is significantly and substantially due to variance in L1 abilities captured by MLAT. Overall, prediction from MLAT is due primarily to its functioning as a measure of L1 abilities, although substantial L1 variance which predicts L2 scores is not captured by the MLAT.

The relationship between poststimulus pause, learner proficiency, and working memory in an Elicited Imitation Task

John M. Norris, Educational Testing Service (ETS) Japan, Tokyo, Japan

Michelle Kim, Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan

Shoko Sasayama, Educational Testing Service (ETS), Princeton, NJ, USA

Abstract The Elicited Imitation Task (EIT) is a popular technique for efficiently measuring global proficiency in multiple languages, and accumulated evidence indicates high reliability and strong relationships with other proficiency measures. Nevertheless, several dimensions of EIT design remain open to investigation, including the assumption that a pause is required in between the aural stimulus and oral response, to ensure processing of the input and prevent so-called parroting. This study investigated the relationship between three poststimulus pause conditions, learners’ proficiency and working memory, and their EIT scores as well as their perceptions of task difficulty, mental effort, focus, and interest. Findings indicated no differences in performances or perceptions between the 0-second pause, 2-second pause, and 5-second pause conditions, and a weak relationship between EIT performance and working memory. Across all conditions, the EIT distinguished consistently among proficiency levels, correlated strongly with a criterion proficiency measure, and produced remarkably reliable scores.

The complexity epistemology and ontology in second language acquisition: A critical review

ZhaoHong Han, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA

Eun Young Kang, Kongju National University, Chungcheongnam-do, South Korea

Sarah Sok, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA

Abstract Complex Dynamic Systems Theory (CDST), an instantiation in applied linguistics of complexity epistemology that transcends disciplinary boundaries, has gained much traction and momentum over the last decade, finding expressions in a fast-growing number of empirical second language developmental studies. However, the literature, while rapidly expanding, has displayed much confusion, notably oscillating between invoking CDST as a metatheory and as an object theory. Then, too, the metaphorical genesis of CDST—the metaphorical adoption of complexity epistemology from physical sciences—has seemed to invite miscellaneous interpretations, rendering CDST an ostensibly all-in-one conceptual prism. This article explores the epistemology of CDST, tracing its ontology and examining its role in second language developmental research. This enables a more nuanced understanding of CDST, while at once surfacing critical issues and directions for future research, as it moves toward a pluralistic approach to investigating CDST as a potentially unique lens on second language development.

Second language anxiety in conversation and its relationship with speakers’ perceptions of the interaction and their social networks

Rachael Lindberg, Pavel Trofimovich, Kim McDonough, Concordia University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada

Abstract Second language (L2) researchers have long acknowledged the role of language anxiety in communication processes, such that learners with greater language anxiety tend to be less willing to engage in communication. However, little research has explored links between L2 speakers’ perceptions of conversation and dynamic measures of anxiety. Therefore, this study measured 60 L2 English speakers’ galvanic skin response (a physiological index of anxiety) during conversation. After the conversation, speakers evaluated themselves and their partner in terms of speech fluency and comprehensibility, engagement, and anxiety, and responded to trait-anxiety and social network questionnaires. Correlational analyses explored relationships between speakers’ trait-anxiety, social network characteristics, self- and peer-perceptions and five levels of physiological response during conversation. Findings revealed that high arousal during interaction was related to speakers’ negative self-perceptions of speech fluency and negative perceptions of their partner’s engagement. Implications are discussed regarding state-anxiety as triggered by partner- or task-specific experiences.

Scale quality in second-language anxiety and WTC: A methodological synthesis

Ekaterina Sudina, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, USA

Abstract As survey research in second language acquisition grows in popularity, the adherence to best practices associated with questionnaire quality is critical for a better understanding of factors that influence second language (L2) development. To ensure that a self-report scale targets the construct of interest and does it consistently and accurately, authors of primary research should demonstrate that their instrument possesses acceptable evidence of validity and reliability. To this end, this methodological synthesis focused on the state of scale quality in L2 anxiety and willingness to communicate (WTC) research by examining key methodological issues of quantitative survey research and offering empirically grounded suggestions for future studies. A close examination of 232 peer-reviewed articles that used 385 L2 anxiety and WTC scales demonstrated, among other findings, the lack of evidence for scale content and construct validity. The implications of this study contribute to concurrent attempts at methodological reform in applied linguistics.

Construction and validation of a questionnaire to study engagement in informal second language learning

Henriette L. Arndt, Lund University, Lund, Sweden and University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

Abstract This article reports on the development and validation of the Informal Second Language Engagement questionnaire (ISLE) for capturing various aspects of learner engagement with informal second language practices. Whereas other questionnaires have primarily focused on learner behavior (the frequency, quantity, and diversity of informal activities in which learners engage), the ISLE additionally targets affective, cognitive, and linguistic aspects of engagement. Consequently, this questionnaire has the potential to help second language acquisition researchers better understand individual differences and variability in informal language engagement, how it changes over time, and the ways in which engagement affects language learning. The ISLE was developed and evaluated in three stages with a total of 382 German secondary school learners of English as a foreign language. The initial instrument development was informed by qualitative findings from focus group interviews. Subsequently, the questionnaire was piloted, and Exploratory Factor Analysis was applied to the data to uncover the underlying factor structures and reduce the number of items per construct. Finally, the revised instrument was evaluated further using Confirmatory Factor Analysis.

Reevaluating trials to criterion as a measure in second language research

Nick Henry, University of Texas at Austin–Germanic Studies, Austin, TX, United States

Abstract Research on input processing and processing instruction has often employed a scoring method known as trials to criterion to observe the effects of instruction that emerge during training. Despite its common use in this research (see Fernández, 2021) this metric has never been evaluated critically. The present study first discusses several challenges associated with trials to criterion, including issues with its conceptual and methodological implementation. The study then introduces three alternative approaches for analyzing accuracy data collected during training sequences: trials to accuracy threshold, growth curve analysis, and bootstrapped differences of timeseries. For each approach, advantages and disadvantages are discussed and example analyses are presented using data from previous research. This discussion shows how these alternative approaches can supplement current trials-to-criterion-based analyses, expand the methodological choices available to researchers, and permit new and interesting research questions.

期刊简介

Studies in Second Language Acquisiton is a refereed journal of international scope devoted to the scientific discussion of acquisition or use of non-native and heritage languages. Each volume (five issues) contains research articles of either a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-methods nature in addition to essays on current theoretical matters. Other rubrics include Replication Studies, Critical Commentaries, State-of-the-Scholarship, Methods Forum, and Research Reports.

《二语习得研究》是一本国际性评审的期刊，致力于对非母语和传承语习得或使用进行科学性探讨。每卷（五期）包含定量、定性或混合方法的研究性文章，以及关于当前理论问题的论文。其他包括复制性研究、批评性评论、学术状况、方法论坛和研究报告。

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