The Manhattan Project 曼哈顿计划

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The Manhattan Project is a code name for the American-led effort to develop atomic weapons during World War II. The creation and eventual use of the atomic bomb were made possible by concentrating some of the world's leading scientific minds, as well as the U.S. military—and most of the work was done in Los Alamos, New Mexico, not in Manhattan. The Manhattan Project was started in response to fears that German scientists had been working on a weapon using nuclear technology since the 1930s—and that Adolf Hitler was prepared to use it.

曼哈顿计划是第二次世界大战期间由美国人领导开发原子武器项目的代号。通过集中一些世界领先的科学头脑以及美军资源，使制造和最终使用原子弹成为了可能，并且大部分工作在新墨西哥州的洛斯阿拉莫斯完成，而不是在纽约的曼哈顿。曼哈顿计划的启动是出于对德国科学家自1930年代以来就一直在研究使用核技术的武器以及阿道夫·希特勒准备使用该武器的担忧。

America Declares War 美国宣战

The agencies leading up to the Manhattan Project were first formed in 1939 by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, after U.S. intelligence operatives reported that scientists working for Adolf Hitler were already working on a nuclear weapon.

领导曼哈顿计划的机构最初由总统富兰克林·罗斯福于1939年成立，此前美国情报人员报告说，为阿道夫·希特勒工作的科学家已经在研发核武器。

At first, Roosevelt set up the Advisory Committee on Uranium, a team of scientists and military officials tasked with researching uranium's potential role as a weapon. Based on the committee's findings, the U.S. government started funding research by Enrico Fermi and Leo Szilard at Columbia University, which was focused on radioactive isotope separation - also known as uranium enrichment - and nuclear chain reactions.

罗斯福最初成立了铀咨询委员会，该委员会由一组科学家和军事官员组成，负责研究铀作为武器的潜在作用。根据该委员会的调查结果，美国政府开始资助哥伦比亚大学的恩瑞柯·费米和里奥·西拉德进行研究，研究的重点是放射性同位素分离（也称为铀浓缩）和核链反应。

The Advisory Committee on Uranium's name was changed in 1940 to the National Defense Research Committee, before finally being renamed the Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD) in 1941 and adding Fermi to its list of members.

铀咨询委员会在1940年被改为国防研究委员会，并在1941年最终更名为科学研究与发展办公室（OSRD），并将费米加入其成员名单。

That same year, following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, President Roosevelt declared that the U.S. would enter World War II and align with Great Britain, France and Russia to fight against the Germans in Europe and the Japanese in the Pacific theater. The Army Corps of Engineers joined the OSRD in 1942 with President Roosevelt’s approval, and the project officially morphed into a military initiative, with scientists serving in a supporting role.

同年，在日本袭击珍珠港之后，罗斯福总统宣布美国将参加第二次世界大战，并与英国，法国和俄罗斯结盟，在太平洋战区对日本作战、在欧洲战区对德国作战。陆军工程兵团在罗斯福总统的批准下于1942年加入OSRD，该项目正式演变为一项军事计划，由科学家担任支持角色。

The Manhattan Project Begins 曼哈顿计划的开始

The OSRD formed the Manhattan Engineer District in 1942, and based it in the New York City borough of the same name. U.S. Army Colonel Leslie R. Groves was appointed to lead the project. Fermi and Szilard were still engaged in research on nuclear chain reactions, the process by which atoms separate and interact, now at the University of Chicago, and successfully enriching uranium to produce uranium-235. Meanwhile, scientists like Glenn Seaborg were producing microscopic samples of pure plutonium, and the Canadian government and military officials were working on nuclear research at several sites in Canada.

OSRD于1942年成立了曼哈顿工程师区，并以同名纽约市为基地。 美国陆军上校莱斯利·格罗夫斯上校被任命为该项目的负责人。当时费米和西拉德仍在芝加哥大学从事研究核链反应（原子分离和相互作用的过程），并成功地富集了铀以生产铀235。同时，像格伦·西堡这样的科学家正在生产纯钚的微观样品，还有加拿大政府和军事官员也在加拿大的几个地点从事核研究。

On December 28, 1942, President Roosevelt authorized the formation of the Manhattan Project to combine these various research efforts with the goal of weaponizing nuclear energy. Facilities were set up in remote locations in New Mexico, Tennessee and Washington, as well as sites in Canada, for this research and related atomic tests to be performed.

1942年12月28日，罗斯福总统授权成立“曼哈顿计划”，将各种研究工作与核能武器化的目标联合起来。在新墨西哥州、田纳西州和华盛顿州的偏远地区以及加拿大的一些地区都建立了设施，以进行这项研究和相关的原子测试。

Robert Oppenheimer and Project Y 罗伯特·奥本海默和Y计划

Theoretical physicist Robert Oppenheimer was already working on the concept of nuclear fission, along with Edward Teller and others, when he was named director of the Los Alamos Laboratory in northern New Mexico in 1943. Los Alamos Laboratory - the creation of which was known as Project Y - was formally established on January 1, 1943. The complex is where the first Manhattan Project bombs were built and tested.

1943年，理论物理学家罗伯特·奥本海默和爱德华·泰勒等人一起就已经在研究核裂变的概念。1943年1月1日，正式成立了洛斯阿拉莫斯实验室，该实验室的创建被称为Y计划。该综合大楼是制造和测试曼哈顿第一枚炸弹的地方。

On July 16, 1945, in a remote desert location near Alamogordo, New Mexico, the first atomic bomb was successfully detonated - the Trinity Test - creating an enormous mushroom cloud some 40,000 feet high and ushering in the Atomic Age.

1945年7月16日，在新墨西哥州阿拉莫戈多附近的一个偏远沙漠地区，成功引爆了第一枚原子弹-the Trinity Test -产生了巨大的蘑菇云，高约40,000英尺，人类由此进入了原子时代。

▲ Fat Man on Tinian

Scientists working under Oppenheimer had developed two distinct types of bombs: a uranium-based design called the Little Boy and a plutonium-based weapon called the Fat Man. With both designs in the works at Los Alamos, they became an important part of U.S. strategy aimed at bringing an end to World War II.

在奥本海默领导下的科学家开发了两个不同类型的炸弹：一种基于铀的设计称为“小男孩”，一种基于钚的武器称为“胖子”。在洛斯阿拉莫斯实验室的两种设计中，它们都成为了重要的炸弹，成为美国结束第二次世界大战战略的一部分。

The Potsdam Conference 波茨坦会议

With the Germans sustaining heavy losses in Europe and nearing surrender, the consensus among U.S. military leaders in 1945 was that the Japanese would fight to the bitter end and force a full-scale invasion of the island nation, resulting in significant casualties on both sides. On July 26, 1945, at the Potsdam Conference in the Allied-occupied city of Potsdam, Germany, the U.S. delivered an ultimatum to Japan - surrender under the terms outlined in the Potsdam Declaration, which, among other provisions, called for the Japanese to form a new, democratic and peaceful government, or face "prompt and utter destruction." As the Potsdam Declaration provided no role for the emperor in Japan's future, the ruler of the island nation was unwilling to accept its terms.

随着德国人在欧洲遭受沉重损失并接近投降，1945年美国军事领导人之间的共识是，日本人将奋战到底，并迫使该岛国全面入侵，造成双方大量人员伤亡。1945年7月26日，在德国占领的波茨坦市举行的波茨坦会议上，美国向日本发出了最后通牒，根据《波茨坦宣言》中”除其他规定外，日本还要求建立一个新的、民主的、和平的政府”，否则将面临“迅速而彻底的破坏”。由于《波茨坦宣言》没有提出关于天皇在日本未来的角色，导致这个岛国的当时的统治者拒绝接受其条款。

Hiroshima and Nagasaki 广岛和长崎

Meanwhile, the military leaders of the Manhattan Project had identified Hiroshima, Japan, as an ideal target for an atomic bomb, given its size and the fact that there were no known American prisoners of war in the area. A forceful demonstration of the technology developed in New Mexico was deemed necessary to encourage the Japanese to surrender. With no surrender agreement in place, on August 6, 1945, the Enola Gay bomber plane dropped the as-yet untested Little Boy bomb some 1,900 feet above Hiroshima, causing unprecedented destruction and death over an area of five square miles. Three days later, with still no surrender declared, on August 9th, the Fat Boy bomb was dropped over Nagasaki, site of a torpedo-building plant, destroying more than three square miles of the city.

与此同时，曼哈顿计划的军事领导人已经确定日本广岛是原子弹的理想目标，这是因为考虑到广岛的面积和在该地区没有已知的美国战俘而做决定的。为了刺激日本投降，必须对新墨西哥州开发的技术进行有力的演示。在没有投降协议的情况下，1945年8月6日，埃诺拉·盖伊轰炸机在广岛上方1,900英尺高空投下了未经测试的“小男孩”，在5平方英里的范围内造成了空前的破坏和死亡。三天后，日本仍然没有宣布投降，8月9日，胖子在鱼雷制造厂所在地长崎上空投掷，炸毁了该市三平方英里。

The two bombs combined killed more than 100,000 people and leveled the two Japanese cities to the ground. The Japanese informed Washington, which following Roosevelt's death was under the new leadership President Harry Truman, of their intention to surrender on August 10th, and formally surrendered on August 14, 1945.

两枚炸弹合计杀死了十多万人，并将两个日本城市夷为平地。日本人告知华盛顿 - 此时因罗斯福总统去世、美国由新任总统哈里·杜鲁门领导 - 他们打算于8月10日投降，并于1945年8月14日正式投降。

Legacy of the Manhattan Project 曼哈顿项目的后影响

With the development of weapons designed to bring about the end of World War II as its stated mission, it’s easy to think that the story of the Manhattan Project ends in August, 1945. However, that's far from the case. Following the end of the war, the United States formed the Atomic Energy Commission to oversee research efforts designed to apply the technologies developed under the Manhattan Project to other fields.

随着旨在结束二战的武器的发展，人们很容易认为曼哈顿计划的故事将于1945年8月结束。但是，事实并非如此。战争结束后，美国成立了原子能委员会，负责监督旨在将“曼哈顿计划”下开发的技术应用于其他领域的研究工作。

Ultimately, in 1964, then-President Lyndon B. Johnson put an end to the U.S. government's effective monopoly over nuclear energy by allowing for private ownership over nuclear materials. The nuclear fission technology perfected by the Manhattan Project engineers has since become the basis for the development of nuclear reactors, for power generators, as well as other innovations, including medical imaging systems - for example, MRI machines - and radiation therapies for various forms of cancer.

最终，在1964年，时任总统的林登·约翰逊通过允许对核材料的私有所有权，结束了美国政府对核能的有效垄断。曼哈顿项目工程师完善的核裂变技术从此成为发展核反应堆、发电机以及其他创新的基础，包括医学成像系统（例如核磁共振仪）和各种癌症的放射治疗等。

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