刊讯｜SSCI 期刊《多语与多元文化发展》2022年第3-6期

JOURNAL OF MULTILINGUAL AND MULTICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

Volume 43, Issue 3-6, 2022

JOURNAL OF MULTILINGUAL AND MULTICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT（SSCI二区，2021 IF：1.961）2022年第3-6期共发文32篇，研究性论文23篇，其他文章9篇。

具体如下：（1）2022年第3期主题为“语言风险、语言选择、语言权利：当代人类学地形中语言多样性的不确定性”，共发文9篇，其中介绍性论文1篇，研究性论文6篇，书评2篇；（2）第4期主题为“课堂上的语言困境和长期矛盾心理“，共发文5篇，其中介绍性论文1篇，研究性论文4篇；（3）第5期共发文10篇，其中研究性论文7篇，书评3篇；（4）第6期主题为”美国中英双语沉浸式教学“，共发文8篇，其中介绍性论文1篇，研究性论文6篇，书评1篇。

研究论文涉及语言复兴、语言权利、语言意识形态、语言态度、语言濒危、第二语言习得、母语教育、语言多样性、语言政策、多语主义、内容与语言融合式教学、跨语言、语言保持、积极心理学、双语教育、对话分析等。

目录

ISSUE 3

Language risk, Language choice, Language rights: Uncertainty of Language Diversity in Contemporary Anthropological Terrains

INTRODUCTION

■ The risk of ‘taking urgent steps’: linguistic diversity and the International Decade of Indigenous Languages, by Christine Schreyer, Tania Granadillo, Michelle Daveluy, Pages 195-199.

ARTICLES

■ Insecurity through diversity: a case study from the Northwest Amazon, by Sarah Shulist, Pages 200-213.

■ The persistence of antiquity: language ideologies and perceptions of language vitality among Sakha speakers, by Jenanne Ferguson, Pages 214-227.

■ “At risk” languages and the road to recovery: a case from the Yukon, by Barbra A. Meek, Pages 228-242.

■ ‘It creates a whole linkage with your ancestral line’: language socialisation, family lineage, and language choice at diasporic Irish immersion events in Ontario, by Jonathan Giles, Pages 243-252.

■ Mapoyo language revitalisation at risk: when variation leads to uncertainty, by Tania Granadillo, Pages 253-261.

■ Uncertainty in diversity: language shift and language planning in Papua New Guinea, a Kala case study, by Christine Schreyer, John Wagner, Pages 262-275.

BOOK REVIEWS

■ Developing orthographies for unwritten languages, by Robyn Giffen, Pages 276-278.

■ Bringing Our Languages Home: Language Revitalization for Families, by Timothy Di Leo Browne, Pages 278-280.

ISSUE 4

Linguistic dilemmas and chronic ambivalence in the classroom

INTRODUCTION

■ Linguistic dilemmas and chronic ambivalence in the classroom, by Jürgen Jaspers, Pages 281-294.

ARTICLES

■ Soft power: teachers’ friendly implementation of a severe monolingual policy, by Jürgen Jaspers, Kirsten Rosiers, Pages 295-308.

■ Embracing multilingualism, experiencing old tensions. Promoting and problematising language at a self-declared multilingual school, by Sue Goossens, Pages 309-322.

■ Mother tongue teaching as a tension-filled language ideological practice, by Line Møller Daugaard, Pages 323-340.

■ The dilemmas of experimental CLIL in Catalonia, by Eva Codó, Pages 341-357.

ISSUE 5

ARTICLES

■ A translanguaging perspective on medium of instruction in the CFL classroom, by Qi Zhang, Caitríona Osborne, Lijie Shao, Mei Lin, Pages 359-372.

■ Power through the semiotic landscape, by Xiaofang Yao, Paul Gruba, Pages 373-386.

■ Motivational mechanisms of ethnic minorities’ social media engagement with mainstream culture, by Chun Lai, Mingyue Gu, Fang Gao, JoJo Wan Shan Yung, Pages 387-403.

■ Linguistic landscape in Kuala Lumpur international airport, Malaysia, by Wai Sheng Woo, Patricia Nora Riget, Pages 404-423.

■ Space and time in Vietnamese heritage language maintenance, by Anh Khoi Nguyen, Pages 424-437.

■ Academic self-efficacy, task importance and interest: relations with English language learning in an Asian context, by Barry Bai, Youyan Nie, Ai Noi Lee, Pages 438-451.

■ The role of grit and classroom enjoyment in EFL learners’ willingness to communicate, by Ju Seong Lee, Pages 452-468.

BOOK REVIEWS

■ Studying dialect, by Matthew J. Gordon, Pages 469-471.

■ Distorted descent: white claims to indigenous identity, by Patrick Lewis, Pages 471-472.

■ Gaelic revitalization concepts and challenges, by Stuart Dunmore, Pages 473-475.

ISSUE 6

Chinese-English dual language bilingual education in the United States 

INTRODUCTION

■ Chinese-English dual language bilingual education in the United States, by Kevin M. Wong, Zhongfeng Tian, Pages 477-486.

ARTICLES

■ Young readers in a Mandarin Chinese dual-language bilingual education programme, by Ko-Yin Sung, Pages 487-501.

■ Language proficiency and competence: upper elementary students in a Dual-Language Bilingual Education program, by Shuhua He, Lu Yang, Genevieve Leung, Qing Zhou, Rosina Tong, Yuuko Uchikosh, Pages 502-517.

■ ‘I think my parents like me being bilingual’: Cantonese–English DLBE upper elementary students mediating parental ideologies about multilingualism, by Genevieve Leung, Serena Calcagno, Rosina Tong, Yuuko Uchikoshi, Pages 518-533.

■ Challenging the ‘Dual’: designing translanguaging spaces in a Mandarin-English dual language bilingual education program, by Zhongfeng Tian, Pages 534-553.

■ Scaling bi/multilingualism through dual language education: a multi-sited study of diverse learners’ views, by Bingjie Zheng, Pages 554-568.

■ Chinese dual-language bilingual education teachers’ pedagogical and languaging practices in American immersion schools, by Wenying Zhou & Guofang Li, Pages 569-583.

BOOK REVIEW

■ Chinese Literacy Learning in an Immersion Program, by Yi Wang, Pages 584-585.

摘要

The risk of ‘taking urgent steps’: linguistic diversity and the International Decade of Indigenous Languages

Christine Schreyer, Community, Culture, and Global Studies, University of British Columbia, Okanagan Campus, Kelowna, Canada

Tania Granadillo, Department of Anthropology, Western University, London, Canada

Michelle Daveluy, Département d'anthropologie, Université Laval, Québec City, Canada

Abstract In this introduction, we offer an overview of the topics of language risk, language choice, and language rights in relation to linguistic diversity. We situate this discussion around the recent International Year of Indigenous Languages (2019) and the upcoming International Decade of Indigenous Languages (2022–2032). In particular, we consider how the decade’s desire to ‘take urgent steps’ to prevent language loss, might take place on the ground, in Indigenous lands. Finally, we suggest that the papers in this issue, which are focused on language resilience and an anthropological view of language, might be case studies for how an approach to language risk, language choice, and language rights might be enacted during the International Decade of Indigenous Languages.

Key words: Linguistic diversity, language revitalization, language rights

Insecurity through diversity: a case study from the Northwest Amazon

Sarah Shulist, Department of Languages, Literatures, and Cultures, Queen's University, Kingston, Canada

Abstract This paper uses the themes of language rights, language choice, and language risk to consider linguistic insecurity in the Northwest Amazon (Upper Negro river) region of Brazil. Because the region is home to a large number of languages (c. two dozen), the idea of preserving this diversity is a popular theme in discourses about language in the Upper Negro river. I argue that the ideologies underlying the goal of preserving ‘diversity’ as a concept are not, in fact, the same ones that have sustained the presence of these languages thus far, especially as concerns the Tukanoan languages of the Uaupés basin (Jackson, J. E. 1983. The Fish People: Linguistic Exogamy and Tukanoan Identity in Northwest Amazonia. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press). Paradoxically, the reification of ‘diversity’ as a characteristic of the Northwest Amazonian Indigenous population has tended to promote homogenisation among groups that have historically valued differentiation from one another. In examining ideologies and practices surrounding each of the three themes of this issue, I suggest that discourses of ‘diversity’, applied at the local level, can create complex outcomes for the languages they are used to promote.ts.

Key words: Language ideology, language endangerment, language revitalisation, Amazon, Tukanoan peoples, Brazil

The persistence of antiquity: language ideologies and perceptions of language vitality among Sakha speakers

Jenanne Ferguson, MacEwan University, Edmonton, Canada

Abstract This paper explores language ideologies and attitudes among both urban and rural speakers of Sakha (Yakut) in the Far Eastern region of the Russian Federation. Like other non-Russian languages in the Soviet era, Sakha was subject to many repressive and often contradictory policies; while today there is a sizeable, growing population of speakers and the presence of top-down support for the language within the Sakha Republic’s government, many contemporary Sakha speakers still express uncertainty about the future of Sakha. Differing perceptions of linguistic value and vitality together with the sustenance or abandonment of connections with other local speakers all shape Sakha speakers’ beliefs about whether the language is flourishing or disappearing. By tracing the shifts in contemporary metalinguistic discourse that circulates as language ideologies, we can see that while there have been positive changes in Sakha language policy and practices, some ambiguities from the Soviet period still linger and continue to influence how speakers view the future of the language.

Key words: Language ideologies, Sakha (Yakut) language, language vitality, language purity, language attitudes

“At risk” languages and the road to recovery: a case from the Yukon

Barbra A. Meek, Department of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA

Abstract This article traces the various ways that ‘languages at risk’ in the Yukon Territory, Canada, are imagined and managed across a range of ‘stakeholders.’ Predicated on a history of oppression and the management of risk in the U.S. and Canada, aboriginal language endangerment has arisen from insecurities about communicative diversity. Conversely language revitalization has arisen from insecurities about the loss of diversity. As this article demonstrates, ideologies of loss and the insecurities entailed therein resonate differently across different speakers, language activists, and institutions, resulting in different perceptions of loss, different experiences of risk, and different approaches to recovery. Moving from policy and the institutionalization of aboriginal languages to people’s reflections and concerns about their own welfare, this article argues that insecurities about language are ultimately insecurities about other vulnerabilities, including the shifting political-moral terrain of the nation-state and First Nations.

Key words: First Nations, language revitalization, residential schooling, reparations

‘It creates a whole linkage with your ancestral line’: language socialisation, family lineage, and language choice at diasporic Irish immersion events in Ontario

Jonathan Giles, Department of Anthropology, Western University, London, ON, Canada

Abstract Colonialism and displacement have not only led to the migration of millions of Irish people and the endangerment of the Irish language, but also to a subjectivity in which it is possible to struggle against the risk of language loss. This paper explores the importance of sharing stories and information about family at second-language Irish immersion events in the diaspora as a cultural behaviour of prime importance that arises out of this subjectivity. These stories are important in the way that they recontextualize family experiences into a diasporic community of practice and because they occur independently of the institutional prerogative to speak Irish at immersion events. Paradoxically, this form of sharing is both foundational to the diasporic Irish-speaking community of practice and poses a challenge to the primacy of Irish as the preferred language of immersion events.

Key words: Diaspora, Irish Gaelic, endangered languages, narrative, speech community, second language acquisition

Mapoyo language revitalisation at risk: when variation leads to uncertainty

Tania Granadillo, UWO Department of Anthropology, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada

Abstract Mapoyo, a Carib language of Venezuela with only one native language speaker, is very close to becoming dormant. Recent interest in the revitalisation of the language has led to classes being imparted in the elementary school and to teachers trying to learn the language and to reinforce it in the school. However, in 2013 when there were 3 speakers left, variation within and among them has led to uncertainty among the language learners which in turn has led to diminishing use. I argue, based on observations in the community and interviews with the teachers, that a ‘standard language ideology’ is putting Mapoyo language revitalisation at risk and that therefore any revitalisation project needs to address ideological domains as well as pragmatic concerns.

Key words: Language ideologies, language revitalisation, Mapoyo, standard language

Uncertainty in diversity: language shift and language planning in Papua New Guinea, a Kala case study

Christine Schreyer, Department of Community, Culture, and Global Studies, University of British Columbia, Kelowna, Canada

John Wagner, Department of Community, Culture, and Global Studies, University of British Columbia, Kelowna, Canada

Abstract Since independence in 1975, Papua New Guinea, the most linguistically diverse country in the world, has had both unofficial and official policies of mother-tongue education. However, limited resources and support for mother-tongue education has led communities to incorporate bottom-up language planning as well. In particular, this paper examines the language planning efforts of the Kala Language Committee (KLC). The Kala language, which has four distinct dialects, is spoken in six villages in the Morobe province. In 2010, the KLC developed an orthography for their traditionally oral language leading to the expansion of mother-tongue education programmes in each of the six villages. Each village has different levels of language shift and during meetings in 2013 had developed their own individual language plans, which best suit their community’s needs. This paper compares the choices of each village to the wider choices of the KLC and to the demands of the national mother-tongue education policies.

Key words: Kala language, Papua New Guinea, Mother Tongue education, linguistic diversity, uncertainty

Linguistic dilemmas and chronic ambivalence in the classroom

Jürgen Jaspers, Langues et Lettres, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium

Abstract This special issue brings together papers that discuss how teachers deliberate competing institutional, pedagogical and language ideological imperatives in the multilingual classroom. It does so because research on language-in-education policy often singles out teachers who resist and transform monolingual policies, or those who ignore pupils’ multilingual resources. Such accounts usefully highlight the possibility of change or the need for intervention. But they risk overlooking the many occasions where teachers waver between both types of conduct to reconcile contrary views on language, teaching, and learning. This issue argues that teacher behaviour must be explained in relation to these contrary views rather than to one of their component parts. Thus, it puts the lens, among other things, on teachers who implement monolingual policies without disregarding the value of multilingualism; on those who take up linguistic authority in congenial fashion; or on those who respect pupils’ linguistic repertoires while setting out to improve their skills in named languages. This introduction discusses some broad tendencies in earlier work on language-in-education policy, the chronic nature of contradictions in class and the ambivalence it invites, before presenting the different contributions of the issue.

Key words: Language policy, ideological dilemmas, ambivalencede, liberation, autonomy

Soft power: teachers’ friendly implementation of a severe monolingual policy

Jürgen Jaspers, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Faculté de Lettres, Traduction et Communication Brussels, Belgium

Kirsten Rosiers, Universiteit Gent, Faculteit Letteren en Wijsbegeerte Gent, Belgium

Abstract Dutch-medium schools in Brussels traditionally cater to a Dutch-speaking minority, but they have recently seen a massive influx of pupils with a limited competence in Dutch. In order to face the resulting pedagogical and ideological challenges, many of these schools have intensified their efforts to remain Dutch enclaves in a predominantly Francophone city. In this article we discuss one Dutch-medium secondary school that positions itself as fairly severe in this regard. We will demonstrate, however, that teachers were generally drawn to a more friendly interpretation of their language policy as they reconciled monolingual expectations with multilingual pupils. Thus, although teachers agreed that a severe linguistic stance was important, they formulated various reasons for not adopting this stance relentlessly. And while pupils in principle could earn a ticket for not speaking Dutch, teachers often merely prefigured the possibility of sanctions, ignored the use of other languages to address other pressing matters, and occasionally recruited pupils’ other linguistic skills as a pedagogical device – without, however, reneging on their language political stance. We argue that these ambivalent strategies can be usefully explained as the outcome of negotiating dilemmatically related ideological concerns.

Key words: Language policy, ideological dilemmas, discipline, ambivalence, Brussels, Dutch-medium education

Embracing multilingualism, experiencing old tensions. Promoting and problematising language at a self-declared multilingual school

Sue Goossens, Faculté de Lettres, Traduction et Communication, Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium

Abstract While much research has focused on how Western schools contain or silence the increasing multilingualism of their pupils, this paper investigates how a Dutch-medium school in Brussels has decided to take a different approach by branding itself as multilingual. Based on sociolinguistic-ethnographic fieldwork, it will show that teachers invested in a multilingual school policy and that they recruited, and allowed pupils to speak, other languages for didactical purposes, as well as in more informal conversations. Nevertheless, as its curriculum remained predominantly Dutch-medium, the school was a site for contradictory behaviour: teachers problematised pupils’ flexible language practices and limited proficiency in Dutch, and restricted their use of other languages out of a concern with pupils’ acquisition of Dutch, access to curricular knowledge, and future educational and professional success. So, despite the school’s attempts to transcend the struggles that arise in schools which are more averse to multilingualism, similar tensions emerge in this setting, as teachers need to find a balance between their pedagogical goals and concerns about monolingualism in the wider society.

Key words: School ethnography, language policy, multilingualism, Brussels, Dutch-medium schools, classroom interaction

Mother tongue teaching as a tension-filled language ideological practice

Line Møller Daugaard, Department of Teacher Education, VIA University College, Aarhus, Denmark

Abstract This article focuses on mother tongue teaching in Arabic, Dari, Pashto and Somali as it is practised in a linguistically diverse primary school in Denmark. The article draws on a linguistic ethnography of language teaching across the curriculum, and the analysis focuses on three mother tongue teachers. Drawing on classroom observations and interviews with teachers and children, the article through three cases portrays mother tongue teaching as an inherently tension-filled language ideological practice. The tensions revolve around negotiation of what counts as legitimate and appropriate language(s): What counts as Arabic when Kurdish-speaking children enter Arabic class? How do centuries of language ideological tension between Dari and Pashto in Afghanistan resonate in mother tongue teaching in Denmark? How is dialectal variation in Somalia handled in mother tongue teaching of Somali in Denmark? The language ideological tensions extend across time and space, across generational borders and across hierarchized roles and relations between children and parents, between pupils and teachers, between teachers and school management and across the mother tongue teachers’ various personal and professional identities as teachers, parents and authors. Mother tongue teachers thus navigate between ambivalent and contradictory language ideological orientations as an integral part of their teaching practice.

Key words: Mother tongue education, language ideologies, linguistic ethnography, critical sociolinguistics

The dilemmas of experimental CLIL in Catalonia

Eva Codó, Department of English and Germanic Studies, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain

Abstract In the early twenty-first century Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) emerged as a distinctively European pedagogy for raising additional language competence. Although CLIL scholarship has been abundant and has taken many different directions, there is a dearth of ethnographic research to shed light on the situated ambivalences of CLIL policymaking. This paper aims to fill the existing gap by analysing in detail the complex interlocking dilemmas faced by all stakeholders (including policy makers and parents) at a Catalan state secondary school (Spain) and the ways in which they were navigated. Through a focused analysis of actors’ discourse, triangulated with long-term classroom observations and a variety of other ethnographic data, the study argues that, despite the school’s praiseworthy efforts at capitalising its students through English, CLIL did not achieve its full potential. This is attributed to the absence of explicitly-set and graded linguistic goals. Such absence is said to be shaped by the intersection of the experimental nature of the policy and long-standing linguistic ideologies in Catalan education. The article warns about the consequences of such indeterminacy for the democratising agenda of CLIL.

Key words: CLIL, Catalan education, ethnography of language policy, language ideologies, oral output

A translanguaging perspective on medium of instruction in the CFL classroom

Qi Zhang, School of Applied Language and Intercultural Studies, Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland

Caitríona Osborne, Irish Institute for Chinese Studies, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland

Lijie Shao, School of Applied Language and Intercultural Studies, Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland

Mei Lin, School of Education, Communication & Language Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK

Abstract As multilingual language teachers ourselves, we believe that this book brings an end to the ongoing debate regarding native speakers versus non-native speakers in language teaching research with a single, well-aimed blow. Nevertheless, situated in a complex, ecological context, the idea of being multilingual instructors as recommended by Kramsch and Zhang remains a highly challenging goal for many language teachers to pursue. We start this review by outlining what the book achieves, before we comment on some outstanding issues that still deserve more attention.

Key words Chinese as a foreign language, medium of instruction, translanguaging

Power through the semiotic landscape

Xiaofang Yao, School of Languages and Linguistics, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia

Paul Gruba, School of Languages and Linguistics, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia

Abstract The aim of this paper is to advance an understanding of power in linguistic landscape research. After setting out and discussing the concepts of ‘power over’, ‘power to’ and ‘power through’, we present a case study of Chinese semiotic assemblages in the Australian regional city of Bendigo. Our research includes ethnographic details of the processes of sign production and consumption, and illustrates the ways in which power relations have been experienced through semiotic objects specific to the Chinese culture. Importantly, such objects are contextualised as to provide insights into inclusion, values, ownership and literacy by those in this specific linguistic landscape. To conclude, we argue that a close examination of the linguistic landscape can inform various forms and interpretations of power relations in diasporic contexts.

Key words: Linguistic landscape, power relations, space/place, semiotic assemblage, Chinese

Motivational mechanisms of ethnic minorities’ social media engagement with mainstream culture

Chun Lai, Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong

Mingyue Gu, Faculty of Humanities, Education University of Hong Kong

Fang Gao, Faculty of Education and Human Development, The Education University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong

JoJo Wan Shan Yung, Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong

Abstract Despite evidence of the acculturation benefits of social media engagement with mainstream culture, there is limited understanding of what motivates or demotivates ethnic minorities’ social media engagement with mainstream culture. Adopting the theoretical construct of investment, this study interviewed 31 ethnic minority secondary school students in Hong Kong to examine their engagement with mainstream culture via everyday social media use and their concomitant investment in learning the language of the mainstream culture. Interview responses revealed that perceived ideologies of social media and the living environments, validation of and expectations regarding linguistic, cultural and social capital, and the representation and construction of desired identities were the motivational forces behind the ethnic minorities’ multilingual social media engagement with mainstream culture. Multilingual social media engagement with mainstream culture was associated with changes in acculturation expectations, attitudes and resources, which motivated or constrained the ethnic minority students’ investment in Chinese language learning and use on social media and in daily life. Multilingual social media use also reshaped their perceived ideologies, capital and identities. The findings call for a dialectic approach to understanding the motivational mechanisms behind ethnic minorities’ use of social media, and for classroom interventions to turn the interactions into a positive cycle.

Key words: Social media, motivation, ethnic minorities

Linguistic landscape in Kuala Lumpur international airport, Malaysia

Wai Sheng Woo, Department of Asian and European Languages, Faculty of Languages and Linguistics, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Patricia Nora Riget, Faculty of Languages and Linguistics, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Abstract This article presents the results of a small-scale study on the linguistic landscape in the two terminals of the Kuala Lumpur International Airport. Thirty-one digital photos of non-identical signs out of a total of 368 ‘top-down’ signs identified in the public space were collected, and questionnaires were administered to airport users to gauge their attitudes towards the languages used on the multilingual signs in the two airports. The findings showed that (1) Malay, which is the sole national and official language of the country, is displayed in the dominant position in all the multilingual signage. (2) English, which is displayed below Malay, indexes English as the second most important language after Malay besides being the language for international communication. (3) The display of Japanese, Arabic, and Chinese at the same level and in the same-sized font indicates that these languages are given equal priority in a top-bottom system. (4) Most of the two airport users agreed that a combination of Malay and English should be used on the signage in Malaysian airports and are happy with its multilingual environment. However, some local Malaysians strongly feel that Tamil should be added to the signage.

Key words: Linguistic landscape, Malaysian international airports, multilingual signs, Malay, English, Chinese

Space and time in Vietnamese heritage language maintenance

Anh Khoi Nguyen, School of Arts, Languages and Culture, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK

Abstract This paper provides a qualitative account of Vietnamese language maintenance in Manchester. Through ethnographic observations of distinctly Vietnamese locations, Vietnamese language practices are shown to create spaces in which Vietnamese is the dominant language, and in which Vietnamese norms and expectations, or scales, are able to influence and contest other behavioural norms. These scales are viewed as social practices, and they are derived from interviews with Vietnamese speakers and observations of Vietnamese spaces, and special focus is given to the linguistic resources used to conduct them. The analysis reveals ideas of language competence and politeness which compete and interact with norms from outside the spaces, and non-linguistic behavioural norms which contribute to language maintenance. Vietnamese is shown to be maintained through micro-interactions which make the heritage language the norm, and business and religious practices are found to promote heritage language use by requiring heritage language practices to participate.

Key words: Heritage language, language maintenance, scale analysis, language practices

Academic self-efficacy, task importance and interest: relations with English language learning in an Asian context

Barry Bai, Faculty of Education, The Chinese University of Hong Kong

Youyan Nie, The National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

Ai Noi Lee, The National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

Abstract The present study examined the relations between three motivational variables, i.e. academic self-efficacy, task importance, and interest with three types of learning behaviours, i.e. class engagement, metacognitive self-regulation, and avoidance coping with 1954 secondary students in Singapore. Positive correlations were found between the three motivational variables, class engagement and metacognitive self-regulation, whereas negative correlations were found between the three motivational variables and avoidance coping. Multiple regression analysis results showed that academic self-efficacy, interest and task importance all significantly predicted class engagement. However, only academic self-efficacy and interest significantly predicted metacognitive self-regulation and avoidance coping, but not task importance. The results were similar for both boys and girls. These findings suggest that academic self-efficacy and interest have a more desirable motivational function in comparison with task importance, especially when students face challenging tasks in learning English. Important implications for teaching are discussed.

Key words: Academic self-efficacy, task importance, interest, English language learning, predictive relations

The role of grit and classroom enjoyment in EFL learners’ willingness to communicate

Ju Seong Lee, Department of English Language Education, The Education University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, People’s Republic of China

Abstract This interdisciplinary study investigates whether, and to what extent, grit (consisting of perseverance of effort and consistency of interests) and classroom enjoyment are linked with EFL learners’ willingness to communicate in a second language (L2 WTC), the final psychological step before actual English communication. To this end, three groups of Korean EFL learners (N = 647) from five schools, who at the time of the study had no overseas experience, were surveyed: middle school (n = 137), high school (n = 323), and university students (n = 187). Results of hierarchical regression analyses show that grit (perseverance of effort) and classroom enjoyment are predictors of all cohorts’ L2 WTC, while grit (consistency of interests) is not predictive of L2 WTC among all participants. These results suggest that L2 teachers, who instruct in a relatively monolingual and monocultural EFL classroom, can boost learners’ L2 WTC by encouraging continuous efforts to initiate English communication. Moreover, by creating a positive classroom environment, EFL teachers can increase learners’ level of L2 WTC and potentially boost their English communicative competence. Theoretically, these findings support an emerging view of the application of positive psychology in L2 learning and teaching.

Key words: Positive psychology in SLA, grit, classroom enjoyment, willingness to communicate in a second language, EFL learners

Chinese-English dual language bilingual education in the United States

Kevin M. Wong, Graduate School of Education and Psychology, Pepperdine University, Malibu, CA, USA

Zhongfeng Tian, Department of Bicultural-Bilingual Studies, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA

Abstract This special issue examines dual-language bilingual education (DLBE) programmes in North America that provide emergent bilinguals with instruction in two-way and one-way bilingual programmes. We use the term Dual-Language Bilingual Education to emphasise the end-goal of bilingualism and reclaim the critical and social justice orientation of bilingual education. Currently, scholarship surrounding DLBE programmes in North America focus primarily on Spanish-English and French-English language combinations, and lack in Chinese-English DLBE programmes. Still, research in this language area is garnering more attention, yielding findings that are both unique to the Chinese partner language and generalisable to other la-nguage combinations. To frame this special issue, we provide a systematic review of Chinese-English DLBE research from peer-reviewed journal articles published between 2000 and 2021. Twenty-eight articles were analyzed for trends and themes. Together with the six studies in this special issue, these articles discuss various issues in Chinese-English DLBE research including (but not limited to) learning outcomes, stakeholder perspectives, language development, and pedagogical supports, while adopting different research designs. We envision this special issue will diversify the language area in current bilingual education research and critically engage with interdisciplinary research narratives to examine opportunities and challenges in Chinese-English DLBE research.

Key words: Bilingual education, Chinese-English dual language bilingual education, United States, systematic review

Young readers in a Mandarin Chinese dual-language bilingual education programme

Ko-Yin Sung, Department of World Languages and Cultures, College of Humanities & Social Sciences, Utah State University, Logan, Utah, USA

Abstract This study investigated the oral reading strategy use of 51 first-grade readers in a Chinese Dual-Language Bilingual Education (DLBE) programme. It attempted to answer the following research questions: (1) What reading strategies do first-grade Mandarin Chinese DLBE learners employ to decode Chinese text during oral reading? (2) Do the first-grade readers of different oral reading levels employ different strategies? Reading observations and prompts to the participants during and after reading were employed to capture the participants’ strategy use. This study found that the participants most frequently used text editing strategies during oral reading. In addition, there were differences among readers of different reading levels. Efficient readers were better able to use a variety of strategies to facilitate reading, while less efficient readers often asked for help and blindly guessed the meanings and pronunciations of characters in the reading.

Key words: Mandarin Chinese, Utah model, young learners, reading

Language proficiency and competence: upper elementary students in a Dual-Language Bilingual Education program

Shuhua He, School of Education, University of California, Davis, CA, USA

Lu Yang, School of Education, University of California, Davis, CA, USA

Genevieve Leung, Rhetoric & Language Department, University of San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA

Qing Zhou, Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA

Rosina Tong, San Francisco Unified School District, San Francisco, CA, USA

Yuuko Uchikoshi, School of Education, University of California, Davis, CA, USA

Abstract Building on research that has demonstrated the benefits of Dual-Language Bilingual Education (DLBE) programmes on students’ bilingual, academic, and cross-cultural development (Lindholm-Leary and Hernández 2011), this study examines the links between dual language proficiency and competence in elementary students enrolled in a Cantonese DLBE programme in the U.S. Specifically, we examined the relations between (a) children’s bilingual (English and Cantonese) language proficiency in four dimensions (reading, writing, listening, and speaking) and (b) their competence in academic, peer relationships, activities involvement, and classroom behaviour domains with a group of 60 fourth and fifth graders enrolled in a Cantonese–English DLBE programme. Multiple regression results show that both Cantonese speaking and writing proficiency had significant main effects on academic competence. These effects remained significant even after controlling for students’ English speaking/writing proficiency. Moreover, both Cantonese and English writing proficiency were positively related to students’ classroom competence. Additionally, higher English reading proficiency was positively associated with peer competence. Results highlight the different beneficial roles of Cantonese and English proficiency on positive self, peer acceptance, and prosocial behaviour. The current study generates new insights into the role of bilingual proficiency and has implications for DLBE programme curriculum and policy.

Key words: Dual language proficiency, cantonese, competence, Dual-Language Bilingual Education (DLBE)

‘I think my parents like me being bilingual’: Cantonese–English DLBE upper elementary students mediating parental ideologies about multilingualism

Genevieve Leung,  University of San Francisco

Serena Calcagno, University of San Francisco

Rosina Tong, San Francisco Unified School District

Yuuko Uchikoshi, University of California, Davis

Abstract While the role of parental ideologies on children’s bi/multilingual development and the role of children’s beliefs about multilingualism are well-documented, less work examines how parental and student ideologies are enacted through talk. That is, how do students interpret what their family caregivers tell them about bi/multilingualism, and how do these beliefs about English and partner language(s) get enacted as a form of social personae? This article examines talk about language and identity from two focus groups with upper elementary students attending a Cantonese–English DLBE school. Participants frequently referenced their parents/caregivers in discussing goals and aspirations and likes/dislikes towards bi/multilingual language use through various forms of reported speech. These evaluations often took the form of commenting on ‘good’ and ‘bad’ language immersion curriculum and what a ‘successful’ or ‘unsuccessful’ bi/multilingual speaker should be like. A deeper discursive look into the utilitarian and intrinsic ideologies about multilingualism illustrates how this talk works in conjunction with neoliberal, classed ideas about linguistic knowledge and competitiveness. Findings demonstrate the complex ways learners see themselves in relation to broader perceptions of language learning and use and how DLBE is used as a vehicle towards (upper-middle) class orientations.

Key words: Cantonese, language ideologies, parental beliefs, discourse analysis

Challenging the ‘Dual’: designing translanguaging spaces in a Mandarin-English dual language bilingual education program

Zhongfeng Tian, Department of Bicultural-Bilingual Studies, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, USA

Abstract In response to a growing call for developing flexible, multilingual spaces in dual language bilingual education (DLBE) programs, this paper explored how [Sánchez, M. T., O. García, and C. Solorza. 2018. “Reframing Language Allocation Policy in Dual Language Bilingual Education.” Bilingual Research Journal 41 (1): 37–51.] translanguaging allocation policy could be strategically and purposefully implemented in a Grade 3 Mandarin classroom in a U.S. Mandarin-English DLBE program where the majority of the students were English-dominant speakers. Taking the form of participatory design research [Bang, M., and S. Vossoughi. 2016. “Participatory Design Research and Educational Justice: Studying Learning and Relations Within Social Change Making.” Cognition and Instruction 34 (3): 173–193.], I (as a researcher) and a Mandarin teacher worked together to co-design translanguaging spaces within and across three content areas: Chinese Language Arts, Science, and Social Studies. Data collection included classroom and design meeting recordings, observational field notes, and teacher and students’ artefacts and interviews throughout one whole school year. Inductive and deductive coding were adopted for data analysis. Findings revealed that it was a balancing act to create translanguaging spaces while maintaining the language-minoritized space and privileging students’ use of Mandarin. Translanguaging spaces took many shapes based on contextual factors such as different learning objectives and curricular demands of each content area. Students were able to demonstrate a fuller picture of their academic performance, develop deeper content understandings, build cross-linguistic connections, and become more aware of their bi/multilingual and bi/multicultural identities.

Key words: translanguaging allocation policy, Mandarin-English dual language bilingual education, participatory design research, multilingual space

Scaling bi/multilingualism through dual language education: a multi-sited study of diverse learners’ views

Bingjie Zheng, Doctoral Program of Second Language Acquisition, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, USA

Abstract This multi-sited ethnographic study, conducted in two Mandarin-English dual language schools in two states in the U.S., investigates how students from diverse social, cultural, and linguistic backgrounds perceive and navigate bi/multilingualism through dual language education. Drawing on the scalar analysis of video-recorded student interviews, this study documented diverse students’ complicated navigation of heterogeneous linguistic resources across scales beyond the ‘two’ in dual language education. It rejects the essentialization and labelling of dual language learners and their learning into homogenous groups based on their linguistic and ethnic backgrounds. Findings reveal that bi/multilingualism is perceived by students as scaled resources to navigate multiple scales of language use. Dual language education is taken up agentively as a scaling practice to gain legitimacy in the English-dominant U.S. society versus in the neoliberal multilingual globalised world. Different patterns of students’ perceptions toward bi/multilingualism and their self-identifications are prevalent between students with different social and linguistic backgrounds, which calls for responsive dual language policies and pedagogies to address the diverse repertoires and learning needs of dual language students and families.

Key words: dual language education, scales, bi/multilingualism, Chinese-English bilingual education, Mandarin Chinese

Chinese dual-language bilingual education teachers’ pedagogical and languaging practices in American immersion schools

Wenying Zhou, Department of Linguistics, Languages, and Cultures, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA  

Guofang Li, Department of Language and Literacy Education, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada

Abstract Based on video recordings of five pre-k to grade 4 Chinese dual-language bilingual education (DLBE) teachers’ classroom instruction, this article examines the Chinese DLBE teachers’ target and first language use and pedagogical moves during their processes of learning to teach in immersion schools in the US. Conversational analyses of classroom interactions show that the teachers’ subscribed to target language (TL) only instruction with minimum translanguaging and that teacher-fronted talk in the TL dominated their teaching with low student language output. Although their attention to curriculum-related content varied depending on lesson focus and student TL proficiency, a significant amount of teacher languaging practices was for classroom management. The findings have important implications for Chinese DLBE teachers’ preparation and professional development.

Key words: Chinese-English dual language bilingual education, conversational analysis, teacher talk, target language, pedagogical practices, (trans)languaging

期刊简介

The Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development is a cross-disciplinary journal for researchers from diverse scholarly and geographical backgrounds. It is concerned with macro-level coverage of topics in the sociology and social psychology of language, and in language and cultural politics, policy, planning and practice. 

The journal welcomes submissions on the many ramifications of these broad themes:

《多元语言和多元文化发展》是一本面向来自不同学术和区域背景的研究人员的跨学科期刊。我们关注语言社会学、社会心理学，以及语言和文化政治、政策、规划和实践等主题的宏观层面研究。本刊主要研究方向为：

• Language planning and policy

• Ethnicity and nationalism

• Identity politics (with its linguistic, religious and other markers)

• Languages and cultures in contact

• Intertwinings among language, culture and religion

• Language learning

• Bilingual and multilingual accommodations

• Programmes and policies of multiculturalism and pluralism

• Language rights (group and individual)

• Reading and literacy

• Collective identity and its “markers”

• Minority-group dynamics

• Educational provisions for languages and cultures  

• Endangered languages

• Emotions in Multilinguals

• Multilingual learner emotions

• 语言规划和政策

• 种族和民族主义

• 身份政治（及其语言、宗教和其他标记）

• 接触的语言和文化

• 语言、文化和宗教之间的交织

• 语言学习

• 双语和多语种住宿

• 多元文化和多元化的计划和政策

• 语言权利（团体和个人）

• 阅读和识字

• 集体身份及其“标志”

• 少数群体动态

• 语言和文化教育规定

• 濒危语言

• 多语种的情绪

• 多语言学习者情绪

官网地址：

https://academic.oup.com/applij

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