刊讯｜《国际双语教育与双语制》2022年第9-10期

International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism

Volume 25、26, Issue 9-10, 2022

International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism（SSCI一区，2021 IF：3.165）2022年第9-10期共刊文57篇，欢迎转发扩散！（2022已更完）

 2022年第9期共发文30篇，其中研究性论文26篇，书评4篇。研究论文涉及双语教育、社会语言学、多语经验与认知、语言政策等主题。

2022年第10期共发文27篇，其中研究性论文26篇，书评1篇。研究论文涉及多语研究、二语习得研究、二语教学研究、社会语言学研究等主题。

往期推荐：

目录

Isuue 9

ARTICLES

■Using formal formative assessment (FFA) to promote undergraduates’ bilingual written scientific argumentation (BWSA), by Pablo Antonio Archila, Jorge Molina, Giovanna Danies, Anne-Marie Truscott de Mejía & Silvia Restrepo, Pages 3137–3150.

■ The impact of CLIL on the L2 French and L1 Dutch proficiency of Flemish secondary school pupils, by Bram Bulté, Jill Surmont & Liesbeth Martens, Pages 3151–3170.

■ Parental evaluation of ‘success’ and its influence on the implementation of bilingual education programmes in Australian primary settings, by Ruth Fielding & Marianne Turner, Pages 3171–3183.

■‘Who would have thought that I’d ever know that!’: subject-specific vocabulary in CLIL student interactions, by Angelika Rieder-Bünemann, Julia Hüttner & Ute Smit, Pages 3184–3198.

■ Castañeda’s third prong redux: the achievement of Arizona’s english language learners after proposition 203, by Kate Mahoney, Karen E. Lillie, Kellie Rolstad, Jeff MacSwan, Natalie DuBois & Tom Haladyna, Pages 3199–3213.

■ Bilingual investments of dual-language immersion program alumni, by Madina Djuraeva, Diep Nguyen & Mariana Castro, Pages 3214–3227.

■ An empirical investigation of Spolsky’s framework applied to family language policy, by Ily Hollebeke, Victoria Van Oss, Esli Struys, Piet Van Avermaet & Orhan Agirdag, Pages 3228–3241.

■Oral narrative development of Mandarin Chinese dual language immersion learners, by Ko-Yin Sung, Pages 3242–3257.

■Self-Regulated learning strategies and reading comprehension among bilingual primary school students in Hong Kong, by Shek Kam Tse, Lin Lin & Rex Hung Wai Ng, Pages 3258–3273.

■ Analysis of the fostering and constraining factors for learners’ participation in the Spanish Heritage Education Program ALCE in Germany: proposals for improvement, by Francisca Ferre-Pérez, Carmen Ramos Méndez & María Sagrario Salaberri Ramiro, Pages 3274–3288.

■ Plurilingual pedagogy in the Japanese language classroom: benefits and challenges for creating more equitable classroom practices, by Eiko Gyogi, Pages 3289–3302.

■Radical conservatism and circumstantial multiculturalism: Jews, Christians and Muslims in a French Catholic School in Israel, by Natalie Levy & Daniel Monterescu, Pages 3303–3319.

■ Paternal agency in heritage language maintenance in Australia: Polish fathers in action, by Piotr Romanowski, Pages 3320–3332.

■A conceptual analysis of typological distance and its potential consequences on the bilingual brain, by Yan-Yi Lee, Pages 3333–3346.

■ Building a foundation for reading success: early American Sign Language and academic literacy outcomes among deaf and hard of hearing adolescents, by Jessica A. Scott, Pages 3347–3360.

■The role of reading skills in statistical literacy among bilingual and native Hebrew-speaking college students, by Miriam Sarid, Vered Vaknin-Nusbaum, Randa Abbas & William Dardick, Pages 3361–3373.

■ Family language policy and bilingual parenting in monolingual Beijing: latent profiles and associated predictors, by Hui Li, Dandan Wu, Sheila Degotardi & Alice Chik, Pages 3374–3388.

■Caretaker input and trilingual development of Mandarin, Cantonese and English in early childhood (1;6-2;11), by Ziyin Mai & Virginia Yip, Pages 3389–3403.

■ The role of exposure on school-aged bilingual language abilities – it depends on what you measure

, by Myriam L. H. Beauchamp & Andrea A. N. MacLeod, Pages 3404–3419.

■ Using formal and informal formative assessment to support bilingual argument mapping in university bilingual science courses, by Pablo Antonio Archila, Gissel Gravier, Laura Levy, Brigithe Tatiana Ortiz, Alejandra Rodríguez, Luciana Wilches, Anne-Marie Truscott de Mejía & Silvia Restrepo, Pages 3420–3435.

■Building L2 social connections: the case of learners of Auslan (Australian Sign Language), by Louisa Willoughby & Cathy Sell, Pages 3436–3447.

■Bi/multilingual testing for bi/multilingual students: policy, equality, justice, and future challenges, by Elana Shohamy, Michal Tannenbaum & Anna Gani, Pages 3448–3462.

■Learning Māori in the workplace: non-Māori learners’ assessment of the value of te reo, by Arianna Berardi-Wiltshire & María Celina Bortolotto, Pages 3463–3474.

■Putting NZSL on the page: multilingual/multimodal picturebooks in New Zealand, by Nicola Daly & Rachel McKee, Pages 3475–3488.

■Modulatory effects of SES and multilinguistic experience on cognitive development: a longitudinal data analysis of multilingual and monolingual adolescents from the SCAMP cohort, by Roberto Filippi, Andrea Ceccolini, Elizabeth Booth, Chen Shen, Michael S.C. Thomas, Mireille B. Toledano & Iroise Dumontheil, Pages 3489–3506.

■The immigrant perspective: Eastern-European parental discourses about the value of French, plurilingualism and plurilingual literacy practices, by Mimi Masson, Marina Antony-Newman & Max Antony-Newman, Pages 3507–3520.

BOOK REVIEWS

■The emotional rollercoaster of language teaching, edited by Christina Gkonou, Jean-Marc Dewaele, Jim King, Clevedon, Multilingual Matter, 2020, xvii+300pp., £25.00 (eBook), ISBN 9781788928342 by Xia Yu, Pages 3521–3524.

■Understanding the oral and written translanguaging practices of emergent bilinguals insights from Korean Heritage Language Classrooms in the UK, by C. Lee, New York, Routledge, 2021, 214 pp., $160.00 (hardcover), ISBN 978-0-367-55509-2 by Kevin Perez, Pages 3524–3526.

■A History of Bilingual Education in the US: Examining the Politics of Language Policymaking by Sarah C. K. Moore. Series: Bilingual Education & Bilingualism: 129. Bristol and Blue Ridge Summit, Multilingual Matters, 2021, 184 pp. ISBN 9781788924238 (Paperback), ISBN 9781788924245 (Hardback), ISBN 9781788924252 (PDF), by Firth MacKenzie McEachern, Pages 3526–3530.

■Choreographies of multilingualism: writing and language ideology in Singapore by Tong King Lee, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, 2022, $39.95 Pbk, 224 pp., ISBN 978-0-19764-465-2, by Norbert Francis, Pages 3530–3532.

Issue 10

ARTICLES

■ Impact of emergency eLearning in a multilingual context with a minority language: how has the absence of school affected the use of Basque, English, and Spanish in the Basque context?, by Nahia Idoiaga Mondragon, Maria Orcasitas-Vicandi & Gorka Roman Etxebarrieta, Pages 3533–3550.

■ The additive effect of metalinguistic awareness in third or additional language acquisition, by Francesca D’Angelo & Antonella Sorace, Pages 3551–3567.

■Chinese students’ engagement with linguistic landscapes during a summer school in Scotland, by Andy Hancock, Pages 3568–3579.

■‘Localizing English in town’: a linguistic landscape project for a Critical Linguistics Education on multilingualism, by Maria Sabaté-Dalmau, Pages 3580–3596.

■ Undoing inequalities: inclusive and transformative language practices in rural Argentinian Patagonia, by Melina Porto, Gabriela Tavella & Carina Fernández, Pages 3579–3673.

■ The influence of teachers’ math instructional practices on English learners’ reading comprehension and math problem-solving performance in Spanish and English, by Jui-Teng Li, Genesis D. Arizmendi & H. Lee Swanson, Pages 3614–3630.

■ ‘I see you': Indigenous language study in a bilingual teacher education program, by Theresa Catalano, Hector Palala Martinez & Dan Moran, Pages 3631–3643.

■Visual silence in the language portrait: analysing young people’s representations of their linguistic repertoires, by Sarah Muller, Pages 3644–3658.

■ Perceptions of linguistic parity on social media: a qualitative comparison between primary Cymraeg and English-medium secondary school pupils, by Richard Jones, Irene Reppa & Phil Reed, Pages 3659–3672.

■ Vocabulary learning in a novel language: is language similarity helpful in bilingual children？, by Katy Borodkin, Rachel Orgal & Naomi Martzini, Pages 3673–3684.

■ The pertinence and feasibility of implementing a plurilingual approach in Quebec, Canada: the beliefs of pre-service ESL teachers, by Zeina Maatouk & Caroline Payant, Pages 3685–3697.

■ Parafoveal orthographic processing in bilingual reading, by Fengjiao Cong & Baoguo Chen, Pages 3698–3710.

■Negation processing in Chinese–English bilinguals: insights from the Stroop paradigm and an orientation task, by Haoruo Zhang, Yi Wang & Norbert Vanek, Pages 3711–3728.

■Vocabulary and reading speed in the majority language are affected by maternal language proficiency and language exposure at home: a study of language minority bilingual children in Italy, by Valentina Persici, Marinella Majorano, Tamara Bastianello & Erika Hoff, Pages 3729–3744.

■Translanguaging and product-oriented drama: an integrated pedagogical approach for language learning and literacy development, by Madeleine Campbell & Alexandra Tigan, Pages 3745–3757.

■‘Du er verdens beste pappa’: affect in parent–child multilingual interactions , by Rafael Lomeu Gomes, Pages 3758–3772.

■The effect of early enrollment in dual-language immersion programs on children’s English reading development: findings from a 5-year longitudinal study, by Ye Shen, Rui Wang, Fan Zhang, Christina Areizaga Barbieri & Adrian Pasquarella, Pages 3773–3790.

■Identifying the assets of emergent bilingual middle school students’ writing: opportunities to validate students’ linguistic repertoires and identities, by Margarita Gómez & Mark A. Lewis, Pages 3791–3803.

■Family language planning strategies among Australian families of Arabic-speaking background, by Areej Yousef, Pages 3804–3815.

■Conceptualising assessment literacy of teachers in Content and Language Integrated Learning programmes, by Yuen Yi Lo & Constant Leung, Pages 3816–3834.

■ Language beyond flags: teachers misunderstanding of translanguaging in preschools, by Gabrijela Aleksić & Ofelia García, Pages 3835–3848.

■Bilingual development in the receptive and expressive domains: they differ, by David Giguere & Erika Hoff, Pages 3849–3858.

■The development of the cognate advantage from elementary to middle school years in French-English bilinguals attending a dual language program in France, by Erin Quirk & Cathy Cohen, Pages 3859–3874.

■Spaces of dissonance in dual language: teacher sense-making of a new biliteracy strategy, by Ana Solano-Campos & Meg Burns, Pages 3875–3887.

■Spanish language proficiency in dual language and English as a second language models: the impact of model, time, teacher, and student on Spanish language development, by Trish Morita-Mullaney, Jennifer Renn & Ming Ming Chiu, Pages 3888–3906.

■Cross-linguistic differences in the associations between morphological awareness and reading in Spanish and English in young simultaneous bilinguals, by Rebecca A. Marks, Xin Sun, Eva McAlister López, Nia Nickerson, Isabel Hernandez, Valeria C. Caruso, Teresa Satterfield & Ioulia Kovelman, Pages 3907–3923.

BOOK REVIEWS

■English-medium instruction translanguaging practices in Asia: theories, frameworks and implementation in higher education edited by Wenli Tsou and Will Baker, Springer Singapore, 2021, xiv+195 pp., USD 129.00 (eBook), ISBN 978-981-16-3001-9 by Kerry Pusey, Pages 3924–3927.

摘要

Using formal formative assessment (FFA) to promote undergraduates’ bilingual written scientific argumentation (BWSA)

Pablo Antonio Archila, Vice-Presidency of Research and Creation, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia

Jorge Molina, Department of Biological Sciences, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia

Giovanna Danies, Department of Design, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia

Anne-Marie Truscott de Mejía, School of Education, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia

Silvia Restrepo, Vice-Presidency of Research and Creation, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia

AbstractAs we begin the third decade of the twenty-first century, in countries where English is the second or foreign language, the goal of internationalization is causing a rise in university first language-English bilingual science courses. Even though bilingual written scientific argumentation (BWSA)—a twenty-first-century skill—is an essential aspect of bilingual scientific literacy (BSL), little is known about how to promote this skill in this type of courses. The purpose of this study was to provide research evidence that formal formative assessment (FFA) could be a possibility for promoting BWSA among university students. A FFA-based pedagogical strategy involving preplanned feedback and peer critique was implemented with fifty-seven students (32 females and 25 males, 16–24 years old) in Colombia during a university Spanish-English bilingual science course. The data were derived from undergraduate students’ written productions in Spanish and in English. The results demonstrated that the pedagogical strategy can be useful for providing students with explicit opportunities to enrich their BWSA. This study contributes to the construction of research-based bilingual practices aimed at legitimating BSL and BWSA in university bilingual science courses. Implications for higher education institutions are discussed.

Key words Bilingual scientific literacy, formal formative assessment, peer critique, university bilingual science education, useful feedback

The Nexus of Race and Class in ELT: From Interaction Orders to Orders of Being

Bram Bulté, Jill Surmont, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussel, Belgium;b Expertise Centre Art of Teaching, University Colleges Leuven-Limburg, Leuven, Belgium

Liesbeth Martens, Expertise Centre Art of Teaching, University Colleges Leuven-Limburg, Leuven, Belgium

AbstractSince its official introduction in 2014, an increasing number of Flemish secondary schools provide a CLIL program next to their regular monolingual Dutch programs. This longitudinal study investigates the effect of teaching one or several content subjects in French on secondary school pupils’ L2 French listening comprehension (n = 545) and speaking proficiency (n = 273) as well as on their L1 Dutch reading comprehension (n = 579). To ensure comparability between the CLIL and the non-CLIL groups, data collection started at the onset of secondary education, which aligns with the onset of CLIL programs, and information on relevant background variables such as L2 French motivation and anxiety, contact with L2 French outside school and pupils’ socioeconomic status was incorporated in the analyses. The results show that following a CLIL program has a positive impact on the development of French listening and speaking, whereas it does not affect pupils’ L1 Dutch reading comprehension. These results suggest that even a limited amount of CLIL (i.e. one to five hours per week) can have a positive influence on pupils’ proficiency in the target language.

Key words CLIL, L2 proficiency, motivation, French

Parental evaluation of ‘success’ and its influence on the implementation of bilingual education programmes in Australian primary settings

Ruth Fielding & Marianne Turner, School of Curriculum, Teaching and Inclusive Education, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia

AbstractIn this paper we consider parents as unofficial evaluators of success in primary bilingual programmes that are not subject to any standardised bilingual outcomes. Small-scale, opt-in programmes that are reliant on parental buy-in are increasing in Australia. Given the importance of parental choice on the sustainability of these programmes, we seek to understand parents’ evaluation of success in their implementation. We apply Mehisto’s ([2015]. “Forces Mechanisms and Counterweights.” In Building Bilingual Education Systems: Forces Mechanisms and Counterweights, edited by X. Mehisto, and X. Genesee, Xv–xxvii. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.) framework of forces, mechanisms and counterweights to two Australian studies, and explore the parents’ discourse around the success of four primary bilingual programmes as a counterweight to the degree of commitment at the school (force) and the perceived affordances (mechanisms). The implications of the parental evaluations of success on the implementation of the programmes are discussed.

Key words Bilingual education, principals, parents, implementation, evaluation

‘Who would have thought that I’d ever know that!’: subject-specific vocabulary in CLIL student interactions

Angelika Rieder-Bünemann, Julia Hüttner & Ute Smit, Department of English and American Studies, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria

AbstractThis paper focuses on Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), an educational approach where a foreign language is used to teach non-language subjects. More specifically, this contribution presents new insights into an under-researched area, namely the potential of CLIL in fostering the learning and use of subject-specific target language vocabulary (SSV). This is investigated in a case study analysing spontaneous oral classroom productions of two groups of advanced, secondary-school students in an Austrian CLIL programme within the subject European economics and politics. Based on a holistic definition of SSV comprising both single and multi-word lexical units, complementary quantitative lexical and qualitative discourse-embedded research methods are employed to present a comprehensive picture of the engagement of learners with subject-specific vocabulary. Findings of the lexical analysis show a substantial and active use of SSV with some homogeneity but also considerable variation between students. Discursive investigations of the affordances for learning arising in interactions indicate that in constructing and negotiating SSV, the students make use of a range of learning and communication strategies, which indicates their heightened level of SSV learning awareness.

Key words CLIL, EFL, L2 lexicon, subject-specific language, classroom discourse, upper-secondary school

Castañeda’s third prong redux: the achievement of Arizona’s english language learners after proposition 203

Kate Mahoney, Karen E. Lillie, Department of Education, State University of New York (SUNY) at Fredonia, Fredonia, NY, USA

Kellie Rolstad, Jeff MacSwan, Department of Teaching and Learning, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA

Natalie DuBois, Department of Teaching and Learning, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA

Tom Haladyna, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA

AbstractThe authors evaluate the success of Arizona’s program for English Learners (ELs) twelve years after the implementation of Proposition 203 to determine whether it meets the “third prong” test of Castañeda v. Pickard (1981), which requires a demonstration of the effectiveness of a program after its implementation. This study is a follow-up to Mahoney, MacSwan, Haladyna, and Garcia (2010) and evaluates the performance of former English Language Learners (FEPs) versus monolingual English speakers (EPs). The data is collected from the statewide, student-level database of student scores for Arizona's Instrument to Measure Standards (AIMS) for the years 2002-2013, effectively measuring the effects of Proposition 203 on the achievement of Arizona’s ELs whose entire school experience has been conditioned by the new law. The overall research design was cross-sectional where proficiency levels on the AIMS were examined during post-Proposition 203 years. The results show that the difference between the two groups has grown over time, indicating that the state’s achievement data does not support the conclusion that Arizona has improved educational outcomes for its ELs, failing the third prong test of Castañeda. Based on these results, the authors suggest repealing Proposition 203, as California and Massachusetts did for similar anti-bilingual education measures.

Key words Program effectiveness, structured English immersion (SEI), bilingual education, language education policy, Arizona, restrictive language policy, English Learners (Els)

Bilingual investments of dual-language immersion program alumni

Madina Djuraeva, Department of Instructional Leadership and Academic Curriculum, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK, USA

Diep Nguyen & Mariana Castro, WIDA at Wisconsin Center for Education Research, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, USA

AbstractThe article explores bilingual investments of dual-language immersion program alumni through an intersectional narrative analysis. Focusing on the experiences of bilingualism of six alumni, we investigate how they continue to be invested in bilingualism, the factors that shape their self-positionings as bilinguals, and the extent to which race is implicated in their experiences as bilingual speakers of Spanish and English. The analysis revealed that investment is not always agentive and is obligatory, and habitual – less conscious linguistic behavior. While individual efforts sustain bilingual investment, biculturalism requires a collective practice. Bilingual experiences are racialized, and raciolinguistic ideologies at home school, and society at large shape alumni’s bilingual investments. Across all findings, we discuss individual and collective similarities and differences among Hispanic/Latinx and White alumni. The article ends with implications for future research and practical recommendations for designing equitable bilingual programs.

Key words Investment, bilingual education, linguistic disposition, raciolinguistic, ideologies, belonging, intersectionality

An empirical investigation of Spolsky’s framework applied to family language policy

Ily Hollebeke, a Centre for Linguistics, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Elsene, Belgium;b Brussels Institute for Applied Linguistics, Elsene, Belgium

Victoria Van Oss, c Centre for Diversity and Learning, Gent, Belgium

Esli Struys, a Centre for Linguistics, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Elsene, Belgium;b Brussels Institute for Applied Linguistics, Elsene, Belgium

Piet Van Avermaet, c Centre for Diversity and Learning, Gent, Belgium

Orhan Agirdag, d Laboratory for Education and Society, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium;e Department of Educational Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

AbstractThe current study quantitatively applies Spolsky’s triangular framework of language policy, including beliefs, practices, and management, to the family domain by investigating language policy in multilingual families in Belgium’s Flemish Community. Firstly, we examine whether the three components in fact call for an independent description and examination. Secondly, we address the relationships between the components. To that end, we developed three scales for each of the language policy components according to Spolsky’s model, and we tested construct validity of these scales using confirmatory factor analysis. Respondents were 776 multilingual families in Belgium. The results of our analyses confirmed that language policy in the family domain is not a unitary construct and that even though the three components are interconnected, they can still be described independently from each other. Interestingly, while beliefs and practices, and practices and management, were strongly correlated, a similar relationship was not found for beliefs and management, a finding which goes against what was reported previously in more formal domains of language policy. We believe that the current study opens up a wide range of follow-up investigations that dig deeper into the differing dynamics between language policy components in formal institutionalised domains, and the informal family sphere.

Key words family language policy, multilingualism, language beliefs, language practices, language management

Oral narrative development of Mandarin Chinese dual language immersion learners

Ko-Yin Sung, Correspondence

AbstractThis study explored the development of oral narrative retell proficiency among Mandarin Chinese-English dual language immersion (DLI) learners in Utah. The study compared the younger and the older DLI learners’ oral narrative retelling production in order to provide information regarding the Mandarin narrative developmental trend of the DLI learners. A total of ten first graders and ten fifth graders who spoke English as their native language from a Mandarin DLI program in Utah were involved in this study. Oral narratives were elicited via retelling a story. MANOVA tests were run to detect any significant differences at the macrostructure and microstructure levels of the participants’ narratives. The results showed significant differences in the older learners for many macrostructure and microstructure features; however, certain components in both macrostructure and microstructure features remain at similar levels. The results could be explained by children’s typical progress in oral narrative development (e.g. progressing from word level through sentence and story formation), the DLI curriculum, and the difference between the Chinese and English language features.

Key words Oral narrative retelling, dual language immersion, Mandarin Chinese

Self-Regulated learning strategies and reading comprehension among bilingual primary school students in Hong Kong

Shek Kam Tse, a Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, PR China

Lin Lin, b International Culture Exchange School, Shanghai University of Finance and Economics, Shanghai, PR China

Rex Hung Wai Ng, c The Centre for Advancement of Chinese Language Education and Research, Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, PR China

AbstractThe study examined the relationships between self-regulated learning (SRL) strategies used by 2,894 bilingual primary school students and their Chinese and English reading test performance. Exploratory factor analysis of the self-reported SRL strategy use questionnaire yielded two factors of strategies (planning and monitoring) used in both Chinese and English reading. The analysis of the structural equation model indicated that the planning and monitoring strategies used in Chinese reading positively affected their corresponding strategies used in English reading. The Chinese planning and monitoring strategies directly and positively affected both Chinese and English reading test performance. The English planning had a positive effect on English reading test performance while the English monitoring strategy did not affect English reading test performance. The results contribute to the knowledge of SRL in second language and bilingual education in the Chinese context.

Key words Self-regulated learning strategies, reading comprehension, bilingual reading development, primary education

Analysis of the fostering and constraining factors for learners’ participation in the Spanish Heritage Education Program ALCE in Germany: proposals for improvement

Francisca Ferre-Pérez, Deparment of Philology, University of Almería, Almería, Spain

Carmen Ramos Méndez, Internationale Hochschule SDI München, München, Germany

María Sagrario Salaberri Ramiro, Department of Philology, University of Almería, Almería, Spain

Abstract In recent years, Heritage Language Programs have been attracting more and more attention in the European academic and educational policy contexts. In Germany, many efforts are being undertaken to foster the teaching of heritage languages in schools. This paper provides an overview of the teaching of Spanish as a Heritage Language in Germany through the long-established Program ‘Spanish Culture and Language Lessons’ (Aulas de Lengua y Cultura Españolas) funded by the Spanish Ministry of Education for school-aged Spanish heritage speakers. The principal objectives of the study are to analyze the main fostering and constraining factors to participate in this program and to propose improvement measures. To achieve these purposes, a mixed quantitative and qualitative research methodology has been used. The findings are discussed according to these main topics arising during the research process: reasons for students to participate and learning needs, teaching challenges, family implication, relationship with the regular formal education system, blended learning, linguistic and culture diversity. Moreover, improvement measures for this Spanish Heritage Language program are suggested. The main conclusions may be useful for heritage language teachers and program managers in other heritage language (HL) programs in Germany and more generally in Europe.

Key words Spanish Heritage Language, Heritage Language Education Program, heritage speakers, learner participation, Germany

Plurilingual pedagogy in the Japanese language classroom: benefits and challenges for creating more equitable classroom practices

Eiko Gyogi, Akita International University, Akita, Japan;b Okinawa University, Okinawa, Japan

Abstract Increasing linguistic and cultural diversity has led to an increased need for plurilingual pedagogy in the language classroom. This study expands the scope of the existing literature on plurilingual pedagogy in a different context: a Japanese language classroom at an English-medium instruction (EMI) university in Japan. It focuses on students’ perceptions of the use of multiple languages in class. Twenty intermediate learners of Japanese participated in five translation sessions, in which they were occasionally given the task of translating text from Japanese to any language of their choice, including languages that the teacher did not know. Post-session interviews were thematically analysed to investigate the students’ perceptions of these sessions. The results indicated a change in the balance of power that had previously been taken for granted in the classroom. All students whose first language (L1) was not English appreciated the plurilingual translation class due to ‘comfort’ and ‘diversity’, along with other aspects; however, half of the L1 English students gave neutral or negative feedback, stating that they did not gain much knowledge or that English should be prioritised. The pedagogical implications of this study will be discussed in order to help create equitable classroom practices at an EMI university.

Key words Translation, plurilingual pedagogy, Japanese, intermediate-level, plurilingualism, English-medium instruction

CRadical conservatism and circumstantial multiculturalism: Jews, Christians and Muslims in a French Catholic School in Israel

Natalie Levy, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel

Daniel Monterescu, Department of Sociology and Social Anthropology, Central European University, Vienna, Austria

Abstract The French Saint-Joseph school in Jaffa is one of the few educational institutions in Israel that have survived, since 1882, three political regimes without relinquishing pedagogical or managerial autonomy. This article examines the emergence of circumstantial multiculturalism in the midst of radical political changes in a colonial-international school. Since 1948, the school has been founded on three constitutive contradictions: a Catholic school with a majority of Muslim and Jewish students; a French school whose vast majority of pupils are not native French speakers; and a colonial school designed to serve the French metropole and the interests of the Catholic Church, but which has been catering for the changing local elites. We show how the school produces a conservative pedagogical space that preserves religious and cultural recognition through a policy of de-politicization. The combination of pedagogical conservatism and pragmatic institutional pluralism posits a radical educational alternative to Israel’s public-school system and a political alternative to multicultural policy.

Key words Multiculturalism, bilingual education, cosmopolitanism, Catholic schools, French culture, Israel

Paternal agency in heritage language maintenance in Australia: Polish fathers in action

Piotr Romanowski, Faculty of Applied Linguistics, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland

Abstract By adopting a tripartite FLP framework, this study aims to explore the agentive role of Polish-speaking fathers in heritage language maintenance. At the outset, it should be noted that as the theme of paternal agency has not been given much prominence in research, this paper delves into how Polish fathers of heteronormative families endeavour to maintain the minority language. More significantly, with the perspective of a new father–child relationship characterised by acknowledged paternity, presence and active involvement in a child’s life, the present article gives voice to fathers who want to engage in everyday language practices that seem to transgress the codes of hegemonic masculinity. Thus, the analysis of transcripts from semi-structured interviews disclose the informants’ ample opportunities for childcare, and most importantly, their struggle for children’s bilingual development. Fathers, as the primary agents, can have profound influence on their offspring’s beliefs, values, attitudes and behavioural patterns concerning the heritage language. The investigation underlines the fact that the gender of the minority-language speaking parent is less important in bilingual childrearing than the actual access to resources, time, and motivation. The study suggests that paternal agency exerts a significant influence on children’s linguistic orientation.

Key words Fathers, paternal agency, childhood bilingualism, heritage languages, Polish

A conceptual analysis of typological distance and its potential consequences on the bilingual brain

Yan-Yi Lee, Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

Abstract With the increasing consensus that a single effect of bilingualism is unlikely, some scholars shift their focus to elements that may exert an influence on the bilingual brain. One such element that has been garnering attention lately concerns the role of L1-L2 typological distance. In this conceptual analysis, I make the case that the foundations to commence this discussion are still weak at this juncture; conceptualisations of what qualifies as ‘typologically similar’ or ‘distant’ are not well-established in bilingualism research, and the tendency to compare languages as wholes, without considering dimensions and degrees of linguistic difference, can be problematic. Further, reflections on how bilingual cognitive demands are formed and how they are linked to L2 skill engagement (i.e. receptive/productive skills) are rudimentary yet underpowered. Crucially, I highlight the ongoing need to meticulously interpret bilingual neural activity and neurostructural changes before conclusions on the influence of typological distance can be reached. I conclude my critique by proposing a conceptual framework – one that addresses language, cognition, and empirical methods in sequential order – to help us embark more effectively on the theoretical inquiry of whether L1-L2 typological distance can pose an influence on the bilingual brain.

Key words Typological distance, bilingualism, cognitive demand, behavioural methods, neuroimaging methods

Building a foundation for reading success: early American Sign Language and academic literacy outcomes among deaf and hard of hearing adolescents

Jessica A. Scott, Learning Sciences, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA

Abstract Although there is evidence that academic registers of English are important for hearing monolingual and multilingual learners as they develop through adolescence, there has been less research in this area with deaf and hard of hearing students. The current study sought to determine whether students who were exposed to American Sign Language (ASL) before age 5 experienced a different relationship between language and literacy skills (e.g. reading comprehension, reading fluency, academic English, ASL proficiency) as compared to students who learned ASL after age 5. Findings suggested that academic English was a predictor of reading comprehension across all students, though differences in language development seemed to exist between those who had early ASL and deaf parents as compared to students with later ASL exposure and/or hearing parents. Findings indicate the need to continued research in these areas and for increased opportunities for language learning during the earliest years of life.

Key words Deaf/hard of hearing, literacy, bilingualism, academic English, early language exposure

The role of reading skills in statistical literacy among bilingual and native Hebrew-speaking college students

Miriam Sarid, Department of Learning Disabilities and Education, Western Galilee College, Acco Israel

Vered Vaknin-Nusbaum, Department of Education and the Center of Literacy, Western Galilee College, Acco, Israel

Randa Abbas, The Arab College in Haifa, Haifa, Israel

William Dardick, Graduate School of Education and Human Development, The George Washington University, Washington, United States

Abstract The aim of the current study was to examine the relations between reading literacy and statistical literacy of Hebrew-speaking college students (L1) compared with Arabic-speaking students whose second language (L2) is Hebrew. The contribution of reading skills to statistical literacy in L1 and L2 students and the differences between the groups, were examined. Statistical literacy was tested via final grades in the statistics class.

Forty-six native Hebrew speakers and 30 Arabic-speaking college students participated in the study. Word recognition and working memory predicted statistical literacy of both groups, and slower speed of decoding new words predicted better statistical literacy of L2 readers.

This is a pioneering study that explores the contribution of reading skills to statistical literacy among L1 and L2 college students.

The findings reveal the critical reading skills needed for statistical literacy. This study may enable educators to better assist college students in developing statistical literacy.

Key words Hebrew, higher education, reading, second language, statistical literacy

Family language policy and bilingual parenting in monolingual Beijing: latent profiles and associated predictors

Hui Li, a Macquarie School of Education, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia;b Shanghai Institute of Early Childhood Education, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China

Dandan Wu, c Department of Early Childhood Education, The Education University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong

Sheila Degotardi & Alice Chik, a Macquarie School of Education, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia

Abstract This study explored the family language policy, parental beliefs, and bilingual parenting in Beijing, a typical monolingual society. Stratified random sampling was conducted to recruit 192 parents of Chinese preschoolers (ages 2.5, 3.5, 4.5, and 5.5 years). They were surveyed with the Home Language Environment and Practices (HLEP) developed for this study. The statistical results indicated that: (1) the majority of Beijing families (90.1%) did not have bilingual home environment or related family language policy, only 8.9% did so; (2) three latent classes of bilingual parenting emerged: ‘No Explicit Policy’ (lower parental education level, no extra-curriculum activities, no bilingual environment, no Chinese-English bilingual, and few books at home; 64.6%); ‘Monolingual Parenting’ (relatively higher parental education level, more extra-curriculum activities, the highest number of Chinese and English books at home, the longest time for Chinese storytelling, and an emphasis on Chinese literacy and language learning; 26.6%); and ‘Bilingual Parenting’ (the highest parental education level, Chinese-English bilingual parents, bilingual home environment, and relatively more Chinese and English books at home); and (3) parental education level, bilingual father, bilingual mother, and number of English books at home predicted the profile of bilingual parenting, whereas parental beliefs about early bilingualism did not.

Key words Family language policy, bilingual parenting, monolingual Beijing, latent profile analysis, Associated Predictors

Caretaker input and trilingual development of Mandarin, Cantonese and English in early childhood (1;6-2;11)

Ziyin Mai, a Department of Linguistics and Translation, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong

Virginia Yip, b Department of Linguistics and Modern Languages, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong

Abstract Early trilingual development is an excellent testing ground for input reduction effects on acquisition outcomes. This article reports a study investigating input-outcome relations in a child Leo in Hong Kong, who was addressed to in Mandarin, Cantonese and later also in English by caretakers through ‘one caretaker-one language’ and ‘one day-one language’ practices. Caretaker-child interactions were recorded monthly from 1;6 to 2;11 and compared with monolingual baselines in grammatical complexity, lexical diversity and verb morphology. Receptive vocabulary tests were administered at 3;1. Results show that Leo, having accumulated 54%, 26% and 20% of his total input in Mandarin, Cantonese and English respectively from birth to three, demonstrated monolingual-like development in Mandarin and surprisingly, also in Cantonese in most lexical and grammatical measures. Hearing English primarily from non-native speakers, Leo was able to match monolinguals in receptive vocabulary and develop productive morphosyntax in English. The findings suggest that language distance and similarity should be taken into consideration in predicting developmental rates and outcomes of specific languages in trilingual development, and that the role of language input from non-native speakers in the acquisition of a third language warrants further examination.

Key words Caretaker input, trilingual development, Chinese, lexicon, morphosyntax

The role of exposure on school-aged bilingual language abilities – it depends on what you measure

Myriam L. H. Beauchamp, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada

Andrea A. N. MacLeod, University of Alberta, Montreal, QC, Canada

Abstract Few studies have focused on bilingual language development in school-aged simultaneous bilingual children. The current study tackles this gap in the literature by examining the influence of language exposure on the development of both languages in school-aged simultaneous bilingual living in additive bilingual contexts. The language abilities of 19 school-aged simultaneous bilingual children were assessed using standardised language measures in French. Their amount of language exposure was also measured using a parent questionnaire. No correlation was found between language abilities in French and exposure to French. Results did, however, show that most of the children who received as little as 20% of their lifetime exposure to French, obtained scores within the average range on all of the measures. Additionally, children who were exposed to both of their languages on a daily basis were more likely to have better performances than their peers who used one of their languages less frequently. This effect was observed even though children in the former group received less exposure to their strongest language than children who were not exposed to both of their languages daily. Therefore, while exposure is important, other factors may have a positive influence on simultaneous bilinguals’ language proficiency levels.

Using formal and informal formative assessment to support bilingual argument mapping in university bilingual science courses

Pablo Antonio Archila, Vice-Presidency of Research and Creation, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia

Gissel Gravier, Department of Chemical and Food Engineering, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia

Laura Levy, Department of Biological Sciences, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia

Brigithe Tatiana Ortiz, Department of Chemical and Food Engineering, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia

Alejandra Rodríguez, Department of Biological Sciences, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia

Luciana Wilches, Department of Chemical and Food Engineering, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia

Anne-Marie Truscott de Mejía, School of Education, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia

Silvia Restrepo, Vice-Presidency of Research and Creation, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia

Abstract The rise in university bilingual science courses is explained by a certain phenomenon, the internationalization of higher education. Bilingual Argument Mapping (BAM) – the ability to construct argument maps using two languages – is a key aspect of bilingual scientific literacy. An argument map is a visual representation of argument structure. The problem is that little is known about how to foster BAM in this type of course. The goal of this study was to explore the possibility of using formal and informal formative assessment (FIFA) – a type of assessment for learning in which feedback is both preplanned and instantaneous –, to support undergraduates’ BAM. The data consist of the bilingual argument maps constructed by forty-four students (27 females and 17 males, 18–23 years old) in Colombia during a university Spanish-English bilingual science course. Results indicate that FIFA helped the participants’ creation of valid and coherent argument maps in Spanish, in English and in a hybrid version using code-switching as response to argumentative questions related to the scientific topics covered in the course. The potential contributions of FIFA and its implications are discussed in light of research and theory of bilingual science education.

Key words Argumentation, formal and informal formative assessment, bilingual argument mapping, university bilingual science courses

Building L2 social connections: the case of learners of Auslan (Australian Sign Language)

Louisa Willoughby & Cathy Sell, School of Languages, Literatures, Cultures and Linguistics, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia

Abstract Social interaction, and the attendant negotiation of meaning, is of prime importance for developing second language (L2) skills. Yet how learners go about building L2 social networks – and why some have more success than others in doing so – remains underexplored. This article explores this phenomenon via a 12-month longitudinal case study of three hearing adult learners of Auslan (Australian Sign Language) who were studying the language in a vocational education setting. Drawing on language diaries and stimulated recall interviews, we explore the learner’s contact with deaf signers and use of Auslan with hearing peers, as well as the factors shaping this involvement and how it changed as their language proficiency developed. While one of our learners threw herself into volunteering and emerged from the study with strong L2 social networks, the other two struggled to varying degrees to build networks and balance the demands of paid work and L2 study. Socio-economic factors played an important role in shaping our student’s engagement and investment in L2 learning. From this, we argue that tertiary L2 programs may be subtly reproducing privilege, and need to address this if we are serious about increasing minority representation in L2 programs.

Key words Sign language teaching, social networks, second language learning

Bi/multilingual testing for bi/multilingual students: policy, equality, justice, and future challenges

Elana Shohamy, Michal Tannenbaum & Anna Gani, School of Education, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel

Abstract Notwithstanding the introduction of education multilingual policies worldwide, testing and assessment procedures still rely almost exclusively on the monolingual construct. This paper describes a study, part of a larger project fostering a new multilingual education policy in Israeli schools, exploring bi/multilingual assessment. It included two types of second language learners—immigrants from the Former Soviet Union, who learn all their school subjects in Hebrew, and Arab students, whose school language of instruction is Arabic but who learn some subjects in Hebrew. The experimental groups received a bilingual version of a test (Hebrew-Russian; Hebrew Arabic) and the control groups a Hebrew-only version. In the Russian-speaking experimental group, students received significantly higher scores than in the control group, while no significant differences surfaced between the groups among the Arabic-speaking students. Yet, attitudes toward bilingual assessment, evaluated via questionnaires, think aloud protocols and focus groups, were highly positive in both groups, addressing the availability of L1 in the test as contributing greatly to a more relaxed and positive approach. Multilingual tools emerged as a fairer method of assessing knowledge for second-language learners, who cannot fully demonstrate their academic knowledge in L2, and their use is recommended as part of the new multilingual policy.

Key words Bi/multilingual assessment, academic knowledge, second language learners, immigrants, think aloud protocol, Israel

Learning Māori in the workplace: non-Māori learners’ assessment of the value of te reo

Arianna Berardi-Wiltshire & María Celina Bortolotto, School of Humanities, Media and Creative Communication, Massey University, Massey, New Zealand

Abstract In New Zealand, te reo Māori (or just te reo) is currently being learned as a second language by record numbers of non-Māori, many of whom are increasingly able to access it through language courses offered by their employing organisations. Considering recent research and policy advocating the value of te reo for all New Zealanders, workplace courses of the language represent important new spaces for the development of normalising discourses and initiatives. Drawing on a small-scale qualitative study, we examine how the value of te reo is understood by adult non-Māori staff who choose to learn it at a New Zealand university. We find that the learners assess te reo according to categories of value that exist in close relation to one another as part of personal systems of value, within which organisational discourses about te reo are integrated. The language is perceived as valuable not only in instrumental terms for the participants' professional life, but as a meaningful symbol of national identity, of exemplary citizenship, and of their responsibility toward creating a more harmonious society. Overall, the study provides preliminary evidence of the potential contribution of workplace courses of te reo for its wider normalisation across New Zealand.

Key words Te reo Māori, Language Revitalisation, New Zealand, Indigenous languages, Language value, LOTEs (Languages other than English)

Putting NZSL on the page: multilingual/multimodal picturebooks in New Zealand

Nicola Daly, Te Kura Toi Tangata, Division of Education, University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand

Rachel McKee, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Linguistics and Applied Language Studies, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand

Abstract Picturebooks are powerful educational tools, both for their content and their contributions to the literacy development of children. In New Zealand bilingual picturebooks featuring Te Reo Māori and New Zealand English have increased in number since the 1980s when Te Reo Māori gained official status and revitalisation efforts burgeoned. More recently, New Zealand Sign Language (NZSL) has been recognised as the preferred language of the deaf community and given legal official status. Sign languages around the world have been increasingly utilised in bilingual literacy education for deaf children. Public interest in sign language has also been stimulated by the increased presence of NZSL in the New Zealand linguistic landscape. As a result, a number of multilingual children’s books have been produced which include the use of NZSL in static or dynamic (multimodal) formats. In this article, we analyse two types of multilingual/multimodal picturebooks. Our analysis examines author/creator motivations in relation to the changing status of Te Reo Māori and NZSL alongside a critical analysis of how these three languages are presented within the picturebooks. Findings suggest the potential for these books to support engagement with literacy for children who are first language users of NZSL and to promote NZSLawareness among New Zealand children generally.

Key words Multilingual picturebooks, multimodal picturebooks, New Zealand Sign Language, Te Reo Māori, linguistic landscape, signing avatar

Modulatory effects of SES and multilinguistic experience on cognitive development: a longitudinal data analysis of multilingual and monolingual adolescents from the SCAMP cohort

Roberto Filippi, a UCL – Institute of Education, University College London, London, UK;c Multilanguage and Cognition Lab, UCL – Institute of Education, London, UK

Andrea Ceccolini, c Multilanguage and Cognition Lab, UCL – Institute of Education, London, UK

Elizabeth Booth, b Centre for Brain and Cognitive Development, Department of Psychological Sciences, Birkbeck College, London, UK;d MRC Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Imperial College, London, UK

Chen Shen, d MRC Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Imperial College, London, UK;e National Institute for Health Research Health Protection Research Unit in Chemical and Radiation Threats and Hazards, Imperial College London, London, UK

Michael S.C. Thomas, b Centre for Brain and Cognitive Development, Department of Psychological Sciences, Birkbeck College, London, UK

Mireille B. Toledano, d MRC Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Imperial College, London, UK;e National Institute for Health Research Health Protection Research Unit in Chemical and Radiation Threats and Hazards, Imperial College London, London, UK;f Mohn Centre for Children’s Health and Wellbeing, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, UK

Iroise Dumontheil, b Centre for Brain and Cognitive Development, Department of Psychological Sciences, Birkbeck College, London, UK

Abstract Previous research has shown that cognitive development is sensitive to socio-economic status (SES) and multilinguistic experiences. However, these effects are difficult to disentangle and SES may modulate the effects of multilingualism. The present study used data from a large cohort of pupils who took part in the Study of Cognition, Adolescents and Mobile Phones (SCAMP) at ages 11–12 (T1) and 13–15 years old (T2). Cognitive measures were derived from tasks of cognitive flexibility, verbal, spatial and visuo-spatial working memory, speech processing and non-verbal reasoning. Using SES information collected through questionnaires (school type, level of deprivation, parental education and occupation), the sample was clustered into high/medium/low SES groups. Comparisons focused on 517 monolingual and 329 multilingual pupils in the high/low SES groups. Having controlled for multiple comparisons, the results indicated a significant beneficial effect of bilingualism in measures of working memory, visuo-spatial processing and non-verbal reasoning. These effects were present in both high and low SES individuals and sustained at both times of development, with a particularly significant improvement of working memory abilities in low SES bilinguals at T2 as compared to monolingual peers. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are considered and guidance for educators is discussed.

Key words Bilingualism, multilingualism, working memory, executive functions, cognitive development, bilingual advantage

The immigrant perspective: Eastern-European parental discourses about the value of French, plurilingualism and plurilingual literacy practices

Mimi Masson, a Faculty of Education, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada

Marina Antony-Newman, b Faculty of Education, University of Toronto, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (OISE), Toronto, ON, Canada;c UCL, Institute of Education (IOE), London, UK

& Max Antony-Newman, b Faculty of Education, University of Toronto, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (OISE), Toronto, ON, Canada;d Department of Education, Childhood and Inclusion, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, UK

Abstract Parental involvement is a crucial, but often, neglected factor for success in learning languages. A growing number of Canadian students from immigrant families attend French Immersion programs and bring additional languages to the classroom. Yet, the role of Eastern-European immigrant parents in their children’s French Immersion education, their beliefs about speaking multiple languages, and developing literacy practices at home across multiple languages are under-researched. Rooted in a plurilingual framework to examine parental beliefs and practices, this paper uses critical discourse analysis to present data collected via interviews and journals. The data show that immigrant parents demonstrate awareness and a rich variety of beliefs about their children’s plurilingual learning; they value French for instrumental reasons; and offer individual solutions for plurilingual literacy development. Implications for educators include valuing parental ‘funds of knowledge’ and acknowledging how neoliberal educational policies widen the gap between plurilingual homes and bilingual classrooms.

Key words French Immersion, parental involvement, plurilingualism, discourses, plurilingual literacy practices, immigrant parents

Impact of emergency eLearning in a multilingual context with a minority language: how has the absence of school affected the use of Basque, English, and Spanish in the Basque context?

Nahia Idoiaga Mondragon, a Department of Evolutionary Psychology and Education, University of the Basque Country, UPV/EHU, Leioa, Spain

Maria Orcasitas-Vicandi, b Department of English and German Philology, Translation and Interpretation, University of the Basque Country, UPV/EHU, Leioa, Spain

Gorka Roman Etxebarrieta, c Department of Language and Literature Didactics, University of the Basque Country, UPV/EHU, Leioa, Spain

Abstract This paper focuses on the use of language during the emergency eLearning period due to Covid-19 in the Basque Autonomous Community. Specifically, the main objective of this study is to analyze how the use of Basque (local minority language), English (foreign language), and Spanish (local majority language) changed during this period among children and the interactions that may exist between them. Four hundred eighty-four teachers and 410 parents participated in this research. The results revealed that teachers perceived a significant decline in the use of Basque that correlated with an increase in the use of Spanish. The decline in the use of Basque was particularly significant among children in kindergarten. The use of English also decreased but was not associated with the use of the other languages. It was also found that the perceptions of children's language use differed between teachers and parents. The findings are explained in terms of assumptions regarding language learning and use in relation to the context of the study. Finally, we discuss some implications of empowering minority and foreign language use in multilingual contexts during emergency eLearning and the measures that should be taken to mitigate the decline in their use at the current time.

Key words Language learning, language use, multilingual education, minority languages, Covid-19

The additive effect of metalinguistic awareness in third or additional language acquisition

Francesca D’Angelo, University of Salerno, Fisciano, Italy

Antonella Sorace, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

Abstract Previous and current research identify Metalinguistic Awareness (MLA) as a possible cause of the positive effects of bilingualism on cognitive development and Third Language Acquisition (TLA). Although it has been acknowledged that MLA is strongly affected by literacy and grammar-related activities, only a few studies have focused on the context and method of acquisition of the bilingual learners’ L2 to account for the mediating effect of MLA in TLA. This study tested the assumption that formal instruction in multiple languages enhances MLA in bilinguals which, in turn, facilitates the process of TLA. 42 bilinguals, with different levels of proficiency and MLA in German L2, were tested for their ability to learn an additional language through an artificial language task (Llama-F, Meara, P. 2005. Llama Language Aptitude Tests. Swansea. Lognostics). Correlations and multiple regression analyses were conducted to examine the relationship between bilinguals’ level of explicit MLA and performance in the TLA task. The influence of various potential predictors was considered including explicit MLA; number of languages; overall proficiency and instruction in German L2. The results indicate that bilinguals with higher levels of explicit MLA also perform better in TLA, after controlling for the aforementioned variables in the model. The findings are discussed in pedagogical terms, suggesting that learners should be stimulated and assisted in the process of conscious reflection and manipulation of the language system(s) and the learning strategies developed in previously learned languages, to obtain a positive outcome in TLA.

Key words Metalinguistic awareness, third language acquisition, instructed bilingualism, cross-linguistic influence, multilingual education

Chinese students’ engagement with linguistic landscapes during a summer school in Scotland

Andy Hancock, Moray House School of Education and Sport, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

Abstract This article examines visiting Chinese undergraduate students’ engagement with the linguistic landscape (LL) in the city of Edinburgh as they participated in a University summer school. A pedagogical approach was taken involving capturing LL on display during a ‘camera safari’; reflecting on questions through dialogic discussion and in writing and sharing results through oral group presentations. The article begins with a discussion of the LL literature associated with different dimensions of education, followed by a description of the multilingual research site and the LL pedagogical intervention activities. The evidence suggests the LL project supports claims of the importance of LL as a pedagogical tool for students to gain new understandings and reflect on their own learning in an increasingly globalised world. Finally, a critical examination is given of the effectiveness of LL as a pedagogical tool in educational settings.

Key words Linguistic landscapes, language learning, Scotland, study abroad, pedagogy, Chinese students

‘Localizing English in town’: a linguistic landscape project for a Critical Linguistics Education on multilingualism

Maria Sabaté-Dalmau, Universitat de Lleida, Lleida, Spain

Abstract This article presents the outcomes of a 2-year pilot study of a teaching innovation project in an English-medium instruction course on sociolinguistics, in a languages degree at a Catalan university. Following the tenets of Critical Linguistics Education, our proposal aimed at promoting the students’ development of metalinguistic awareness of linguistic diversity; particularly, of Englishization phenomena in their socialization spaces. Firstly, we detail the project, based on the students’ interpretive analysis of the social meanings of a series of Linguistic Landscapes involving local and global languages that they gathered ethnographically. This required the use of two technologies of citizenship participation, employed as Foreign Language learning/teaching instruments: A geolocating map and a 2.0 web. We then analyze the students’ productions, and their marks, course ratings and project-assessment reports. We show that the required disciplinary content and advanced English level were attained. Students became knowledge generators of sociolinguistics phenomena and developed an intercultural, plurilingual competence in ‘localized Englishes’. We conclude that the use of Linguistic Landscaping is an effective means to develop the multilingual literacy, technoliteracy and learning-to-learn competences required by the European Council. This contributes to the design of pedagogical strategies fostering the students’ commitment to an ethics of respect towards multilingualism.

Key words Critical Linguistics Education, linguistic landscaping, metalinguistic awareness, intercultural plurilingual English competence, citizenship participation technologies

Undoing inequalities: inclusive and transformative language practices in rural Argentinian Patagonia

Melina Porto, a Universidad Nacional de La Plata and National Research Council, La Plata, Argentina

Gabriela Tavella & Carina Fernández, b Facultad de Lenguas, Universidad Nacional del Comahue, Neuquen, Argentina

Abstract This article reports a service learning experience carried out by university student tour-guides and pre-service teachers of English during 2017–2018 in a rural multi-grade primary school in northern Argentinian Patagonia. With their university English language teachers, participants taught workshops using intercultural literature in English to 6–14 year olds from the native Mapuche communities with no prior contact with English. They also designed and delivered two guided tours of heritage sites in the area. Theoretically, the study is grounded in a conceptualisation of social justice language education beyond redistribution, with a focus on recognition, inclusive language ideologies and practices, and transformative learning. Designed as a case study, data comprise reflection logs, workshop and tour plans, field notes, children’s artefacts, photographs and video-recordings of the experiences. Qualitative data analysis involves holistic, inductive and deductive phases. Findings indicate that the children engaged in multilingual, multimodal, creative and embodied forms of expression combining their affective and semiotic resources through literature, music, movement and embodiment, the creative arts and outdoor learning experiences. These resources became the means for initiating transformation of their selves and their social milieu focused on the local environment. Implications for language education in multilingual contexts are discussed.

Key words Multiliteracies, multimodality, translanguaging, social justice, inclusive language practices, outdoor learning, self and social transformation, Mapuche, Mapudungun

The influence of teachers’ math instructional practices on English learners’ reading comprehension and math problem-solving performance in Spanish and English

Jui-Teng Li,  Appalachian State University, Boone, United States

Genesis D. Arizmendi, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, United States

H. Lee Swanson, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, United States

Abstract Even though Indigenous Latino/a/x students sometimes have different experiences from other students in bilingual programs in the US, they are often homogenized into the overarching category of ‘Latino/a/o/x.’ Using narrative inquiry and the sub-genre of collective autoethnography, this paper tells the story of our experiences studying K’iche’ and Kaqchikel as part of a graduate course in a bilingual teacher education program. Drawing on Critical Latinx Indigeneities theory, we found that studying Indigenous languages as part of a bilingual teacher education course and critically reflecting on this together helped increase our multilingual awareness, know and connect to our students and community, and learn more about ourselves in the process.

Key words Indigenous Latino/a/x students, Critical Latinx Indigeneities, dual language, bilingual programs, multilingualism

‘I see you': Indigenous language study in a bilingual teacher education program

Theresa Catalano, Hector Palala Martinez & Dan Moran, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, USA

Abstract Even though Indigenous Latino/a/x students sometimes have different experiences from other students in bilingual programs in the US, they are often homogenized into the overarching category of ‘Latino/a/o/x.’ Using narrative inquiry and the sub-genre of collective autoethnography, this paper tells the story of our experiences studying K’iche’ and Kaqchikel as part of a graduate course in a bilingual teacher education program. Drawing on Critical Latinx Indigeneities theory, we found that studying Indigenous languages as part of a bilingual teacher education course and critically reflecting on this together helped increase our multilingual awareness, know and connect to our students and community, and learn more about ourselves in the process.

Key words Indigenous Latino/a/x students, Critical Latinx Indigeneities, dual language, bilingual programs, multilingualism

Visual silence in the language portrait: analysing young people’s representations of their linguistic repertoires

Sarah Muller, School of Languages and Cultures, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK

Abstract While the language portrait (LP) is a visual research method that can make visible speakers’ multilingualism, this article considers how and why speakers may use the LP to make elements of their linguistic repertoire invisible. Analysing the portraits created by three primary school students in Luxembourg, I explore why these young people omitted different linguistic resources in the visual representation of their linguistic repertoire. Combining subject-based perspectives on multilingualism grounded in the lived experience of language with scholarship on silence and visual silence, instances of such erasures are explored in light of their formal, content and functional dimensions. More specifically, I analyse how visual silence can function as a strategy to align the LP with how speakers understand their linguistic repertoire and sense of self, and explore visual silence as a subversive act of resistance against curricular languages at school. The conclusion highlights the affordances of the LP as a visual, creative method that can support subject-based approaches to multilingualism and offers speakers a potentially empowering way to visually and discursively affirm their linguistic repertoire, with visual silence constituting an intentional strategy within this process of representation.

Key words Multilingualism, language portrait, visual silence

Perceptions of linguistic parity on social media: a qualitative comparison between primary Cymraeg and English-medium secondary school pupils

Richard Jones, Irene Reppa, Phil Reed, Department of Psychology, Swansea University, Swansea, UK

Abstract This thematic analytic qualitative study used participants’ oral narratives to examine primary Cymraeg, which is the Welsh language, and English-speaking adolescents’ perceptions regarding Cymraeg-speakers’ opportunities of using their primary language on social media. Twenty-three participants were interviewed (two Welsh/Bilingual-medium schools: males = 5, females = 6; two English-medium schools: males = 6, females = 6). All of the Welsh/Bilingual-medium participants were primary Cymraeg-speakers. Operating at the broad thematic level, both groups provided similar responses. However, inter-group variance might be inferred at the sub-thematic level where, for instance, Cymraeg-speakers identified a greater array of technical limitations preventing Cymraeg-speakers using Cymraeg within the social media domain. The potential consequences of an actual or perceptual linguistic imbalance on social media are discussed.

Key words Social media, Cymraeg

Vocabulary learning in a novel language: is language similarity helpful in bilingual children?

Katy Borodkin, Rachel Orgal & Naomi Martzini, Department of Communication Disorders, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Israel

Abstract Bilinguals are more successful than monolinguals in novel language learning due to the transfer of prior learning strategies and experiences with two languages. The extent of such transfer may depend on the similarity between previously acquired languages and a novel language. This hypothesis was tested in relation to vocabulary learning in elementary school children. The sample included 10 Hebrew-Yiddish speakers, 10 Hebrew-English speakers, and 10 monolingual Hebrew speakers who learned ancient Aramaic as part of religious studies. Hebrew-Yiddish speakers, for whom both languages were similar to Aramaic, recalled more Aramaic words than both monolingual speakers and Hebrew-English speakers, for whom only one language was similar to Aramaic. There was no statistically significant difference between Hebrew-English and monolingual speakers. The advantage in the Hebrew-Yiddish group remained significant even after controlling for background variables, such as years of maternal education, phonological short-term memory, and vocabulary size in Hebrew. These findings provide evidence that previously acquired languages may facilitate vocabulary learning in a novel language if they are similar to the novel language.

Key words Advantages of bilingualism, childhood bilingualism, heritage languages, language acquisition, multilingual language acquisition

Native Language Similarity during Foreign Language Learning: Effects of Cognitive Strategies and Affective States

Zeina Maatouk & Caroline Payant, Department of Language Education, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montréal, Canada

Abstract The field of language pedagogy has increasingly advocated for the implementation of plurilingual approaches which promote learners’ ability to mobilize all linguistic resources at their disposal in order to communicate in different situations with various interlocutors [Cabré Rocafort 2019. “The Development of Plurilingual Education Through Multimodal Narrative Reflection in Teacher Education: A Case Study of a Pre-Service Teacher’s Beliefs About Language Education.” Canadian Modern Language Review 75 (1): 40–64; Coste, Moore, and Zarate 2009. Plurilingual and Pluricultural Competence.]. The implementation of such approaches, however, relies greatly on teachers’ openness and ability to help their learners explore their linguistic and cultural repertoires. To date, the beliefs of pre-service teachers (PSTs) in Quebec regarding the implementation of plurilingual approaches remain under-researched. This exploratory study aimed at examining the beliefs of future teachers regarding the pertinence and feasibility of implementing a plurilingual approach, as well as the impact of teacher education and previous language learning experiences on these beliefs. An online questionnaire was shared with undergraduate ESL teacher education programs across the province of Quebec and answers from 52 PSTs were collected and analyzed. Results suggest that future teachers were reluctant to implement a plurilingual approach, despite holding positive beliefs towards certain underlying principles of plurilingualism. Findings also indicate that PSTs are heavily encouraged, during teacher education, to maintain a monolingual class policy. Pedagogical implications are discussed in light of research on plurilingualism and PSTs’ beliefs.

Key words Plurilingualism, plurilingual approaches, English as a second language, beliefs, pre-service teachers

Parafoveal orthographic processing in bilingual reading

Fengjiao Cong & Baoguo Chen, Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, People’s Republic of China

Abstract Reading is a very complex task in which readers obtain information to promote reading from not only the fixated word located in the foveal area but also non-fixated words located in the parafoveal area. We aimed to investigate the second language (L2) parafoveal orthographic (letter identity and letter position) processing mechanism adopting the eye-tracking technique and boundary paradigm. We set up four previews for each target: (1) the identity preview (e.g. reporter → reporter), (2) the transposed-letter preview (e.g. repotrer → reporter), (3) the substituted-letter condition (e.g. repokcer → reporter), and (4) the unrelated preview (e.g. chemaful → reporter). There are three main findings. First, L2 readers could extract and utilize the parafoveal orthographic information shared by the preview and the target to affect the late L2 processing stage. Second, when there was only a small difference between the preview and the target, L2 readers did not notice the subtle difference in the parafovea. Third, the identity and position of an internal single letter have little effect on L2 reading compared with the similarity of the whole word in the parafoveal area. Future L2 reading frameworks should be developed to explain these new findings.

Key words Second language reading, parafoveal processing, letter identity, letter position, eye-tracking

Negation processing in Chinese–English bilinguals: insights from the Stroop paradigm and an orientation task

Haoruo Zhang, College of Foreign Languages, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China

Yi Wang, School of English, Communication and Philosophy, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom

Norbert Vanek, School of Cultures, Languages and Linguistics, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand;d Experimental Research on Central European Languages Lab, Charles University Prague, Prague, Czech Republic

Abstract Previous experimental work shows that negation processing can be direct in bipolar contexts where positive/negative states of affairs can be expressed by available lexical opposites (remember/forget) in monolingual speakers. However, in a unipolar context where such opposites are not available (sing/not sing), the processing first proceeds through the positive and only then the negative state of affairs. We test this claim with bilinguals to answer two questions. To what extent do (a) the processing routes and (b) the conceptual representations of the negated statement differ in bipolar/unipolar contexts when bilinguals process negation in their L1 and L2? 40 Chinese–English bilinguals were tested in a Negative Stroop Task (Expt. 1), in which they were instructed to verify whether the positive/negative English/Chinese colour expressions matched the colour they were printed in, either in bipolar (black/white) or unipolar contexts (green/not green). We also zoomed in on the conceptual representations of negation and tested another 40 Chinese–English bilinguals in an Orientation Task (Expt. 2). Participants compared positive/negative descriptions against pictures regarding the location of a star in either bipolar (left/right) or unipolar contexts (East/not East). The results suggest that language can drive changes when bilinguals process negation, with variations in the bipolar and unipolar contexts.

Key words Negation, conceptual representation, bilingual, two-step model, fusion model

Vocabulary and reading speed in the majority language are affected by maternal language proficiency and language exposure at home: a study of language minority bilingual children in Italy

Valentina Persici, Marinella Majorano, Tamara Bastianello, Department of Human Sciences, University of Verona, via S. Francesco 22 Verona, Italy

Erika Hoff, Department of Psychology, Florida Atlantic University, Davie, FL, USA

Abstract Environmental sources of variance in the Italian vocabulary and reading skills of bilingual primary school children from immigrant families (or language minority bilingual children (LMBC)) in Italy were investigated, and the LMBC’s skill levels were compared to those of their monolingual classmates. A total of 140 children from the first, third, and fifth grades were administered standardized tests of receptive vocabulary, word reading, and nonword reading skills. LMBC’s exposure to Italian at home and their mothers’ Italian proficiency were reported by mothers. Immigrant mothers’ Italian proficiency was a significant predictor of vocabulary and word reading speed but not of word accuracy or nonword reading. High levels of Italian exposure at home in combination with low levels of maternal Italian proficiency was a negative predictor of vocabulary; high exposure to Italian at home was positively associated with word reading speed and negatively associated with nonword reading speed. LMBC had lower vocabulary scores but did not differ from monolingual children in measures of reading skill. The findings underscore the importance of the quality of language exposure for language development and replicate findings that bilingual children show decoding skills on a par with monolingual children despite smaller vocabularies.

Key words Bilingual language development, vocabulary, reading, language minority, maternal input, language exposure

Translanguaging and product-oriented drama: an integrated pedagogical approach for language learning and literacy development

Madeleine Campbell & Alexandra Tigan, Institute for Language Education, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

Abstract This study investigated the translanguaging practices of 12 students and a teacher rehearsing a German play as part of an extra-curricular UK university theatre group comprising different European nationalities. Our aim was to understand how these practices support foreign language and literacy development in the context of a script-based, product-oriented approach to drama. The final three full rehearsals were audio-recorded and transcribed. Following functional analysis to identify translanguaging instances, discourse analysis was applied to selected extracts where learning was inferred or shown to occur. Rehearsals provided a rich learning environment in which participants were affectively engaged, with specific opportunities for contextualised language learning and literacy development. Translanguaging enhanced these learning opportunities, enabling students to engage with the German script as bilinguals drawing on both their linguistic and multimodal repertoires to build meaning. The integration of translanguaging and product-oriented drama offers a linguistically diverse and embodied pedagogical approach to language education and a wealth of learning affordances less readily accessed in monolingual environments.

Key words Translanguaging, product drama, language education, biliteracy, multimodality, discourse analysis

‘Du er verdens beste pappa’: affect in parent–child multilingual interactions

Rafael Lomeu Gomes, Center for Multilingualism in Society across the Lifespan, Department of Linguistics and Scandinavian Studies, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway

Abstract This article examines the affective dimension of the linguistic repertoire of multilingual families. Specifically, resulting from a three-year ethnographic project in Norway, this study sets out to better understand the role of affect in parent–child interactions as members of two Brazilian-Norwegian families draw on their multilingual linguistic repertoires in the ongoing construction of their familial ties. A discursive analytical approach was employed to examine audio-recordings made by one of the parents of each family (i.e. around 15 h of recordings in total). The analysis demonstrates how certain linguistic features (i.e. terms of endearment and the ‘you are … ’-format), combined with the use of the participants’ multilingual repertoire, accomplish three interrelated social actions; they: (i) convey parental value-laden aspirations of child-rearing, (ii) position children according to expected social roles, and (iii) forge parent–child ties. These findings are supplemented with interview data, which serve to illustrate the role of home-external contexts in encouraging the parents to use Portuguese with their children in the home. Focusing on the affective dimension of parent–child interactions as they draw on their multilingual repertoires to construct familial bonds contributes to an underexplored area in family multilingualism studies.

Key words Affect, family language policy, family multilingualism, linguistic repertoire

The effect of early enrollment in dual-language immersion programs on children’s English reading development: findings from a 5-year longitudinal study

Ye Shen, School of Education, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA

Rui Wang, Mathematica Inc, Princeton, NJ, USA

Fan Zhang, Christina Areizaga Barbieri & Adrian Pasquarella, School of Education, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA

Abstract The present study examined the effect of children’s enrollment in U.S. dual-language immersion (DLI) programs in first grade on English development across five years, using the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 2011 (ECLS-K:2011) database. Propensity score matching was used to create comparable groups of DLI and non-DLI students based on students’ kindergarten reading performance and a series of student-, family-, and school-level characteristics. Growth curve models demonstrate that first-grade DLI enrollment had a positive effect on children’s English reading growth from Grade 1 to 5. Children who enrolled in DLI experienced greater improvements by Grade 5. We also found that first-grade teacher judgment was related to children’s initial reading performance but not their reading growth. Implications related to DLI programs, teacher practices, and bilingual educational policies are discussed.

Key words Dual-language immersion, reading achievement, growth curve model, propensity score matching, teacher judgment

Identifying the assets of emergent bilingual middle school students’ writing: opportunities to validate students’ linguistic repertoires and identities

Margarita Gómez, School of Education, Loyola University Maryland, Baltimore, MD, USA

Mark A. Lewis, School of Education, Loyola University Maryland, Baltimore, MD, USA

Abstract We highlight how the use of holistic biliteracy and translanguaging perspectives can be applied in the assessment of emergent bilingual middle school students’ writing to counter deficit views of their divergent repertoires. The study took place in a Mountain West middle school with a large Latinx population. We analyzed eleven emerging bilingual students’ (EBs) responses to a writing prompt in an English language arts class. Findings include EBs’ use of translanguaging [García, O. 2009. Bilingual Education in the 21st Century: A Global Perspective. Wiley-Blackwell], or strategic languaging, in which the students used different codes/languages in their writing. Additionally, this study found that EBs might show different patterns of spelling development as they learn to access the different alphabetic patterns of their respective repertoires. Finally, the study highlights how EBs draw from diverse discourse patterns as they compose. The analysis revealed the cultural and linguistic knowledge(s) EBs bring to developing their writing, which are often not part of monolingual English writing rubrics. Thus, the implications suggest that teachers need to develop critical sociolinguistic responsive practices as the field seeks to equitably assess the writing of EBs. Moreover, we suggest that critical cultural and linguistic awareness is needed in order to nurture the identities and competencies of EBs.

Key words Bilingualism, biliteracy, translanguaging, funds of knowledge, language competence, writing

Family language planning strategies among Australian families of Arabic-speaking background

Areej Yousef, School of Education and Professional Studies. Griffith University, 176 Messines Ridge Road, Brisbane, QLD, Australia

Abstract This paper explores the language planning strategies employed by Australian transnational families of Arabic-speaking backgrounds to develop their children’s bilingualism in English and Arabic. The paper concludes that the families’ transnationalism and strong links with their countries of origin played a significant role in their language planning decisions. The study revealed that the mothers consciously developed their children’s bilingualism by means of both planned and spontaneous language management strategies. Semi-structured interviews and a focus group discussion revealed that the mothers used five main strategies, which comprised using the minority language at home, language mixing, reading stories, taking advantage of television shows and travelling to their hometowns. This paper discusses the validity and success of each strategy by comparing them with research findings on other transnational and migrant families around the world.

Key words Family language policy, transnational families, Arabic, Australia, family language planning strategies, language maintenance

Conceptualising assessment literacy of teachers in Content and Language Integrated Learning programmes

Yuen Yi Lo, Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong

Constant Leung, School of Education, Communication and Society, King’s College London, London, UK

Abstract In Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) programmes, non-linguistic content is taught and assessed in an additional language. Hence, CLIL teachers, most of whom are content subject specialists, may encounter difficulties in evaluating students’ content knowledge independent of their L2 proficiency and in aligning objectives, instruction and assessment. These concerns are closely related to teachers’ assessment literacy, which is seen as integral to teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge and plays a crucial role in effective instruction and assessment. While frameworks for teachers’ assessment literacy exist, there have been calls to re-examine this important construct with reference to specific disciplinary contexts. Given the curricular complexities of CLIL, this paper seeks to conceptualise the assessment literacy of teachers in such programmes. It will first tease out the complexities of assessment in CLIL programmes. It will then review some relevant literature on teachers’ assessment literacy, based on which a conceptual framework for CLIL teachers’ assessment literacy is proposed. It will also include an illustrative case of how the framework could be applied in research. The framework will establish a theoretical grounding for future empirical research in the field and have important implications for CLIL teacher education.

Key words Bilingual education, Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), teacher assessment literacy

Language beyond flags: teachers misunderstanding of translanguaging in preschools

Gabrijela Aleksić, Univeristy of Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg

Ofelia García, City University of New York, New York, NY, USA

Abstract Based on an analysis of the video recording and transcript of one lesson chosen by preschool teachers in Luxembourg as an example of translanguaging pedagogy, this article shows the teachers’ limited understandings of translanguaging. As a result of a new 2017 multilingual education policy for early childhood, the first author designed a professional development project in which the teachers in this preschool participated. During a lesson, the teachers insisted that these young children had a home language associated with a national affiliation depicted by a flag, despite the children themselves telling them repeatedly that their home language practices were complex and included Luxembourgish, which was part of their identity. The teachers’ actions and discourse reveal raciolinguistic ideologies and misappropriation of the term translanguaging to simply implement what could be better described as a multilingual awareness activity. On the surface, the teachers have shifted from monolingual instruction to one that recognizes the children’s multilingualism. Yet, teachers continue to associate the notion of language with flags and political states, instead of taking up an inside-view of the bilingual speaker, the kernel of translanguaging theory.

Key words Multilingualism, language choice, language minorities, language use

Bilingual development in the receptive and expressive domains: they differ

David Giguere, Department of Psychology, California State University, Sacramento, Sacramento, CA, USA

Erika Hoff, Department of Psychology, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA

Abstract In bilingual children, more so than in monolingual children, comprehension abilities exceed production abilities. While this receptive-expressive gap in bilinguals has been well documented, little is known about its development. The present study tracked growth in the Spanish and English receptive and expressive vocabularies of 52 bilingual children from 4.5–10 years. The children’s English vocabularies grew faster than their Spanish vocabularies, more so in the expressive domain than the receptive domain. The proportion of children who were English-dominant also increased more in the expressive than the receptive domain. By age 10, the children’s expressive skills were almost always English dominant while their receptive skills were most frequently balanced. Among children who hear a heritage language at home and a societal language at school, trajectories of dual language development differs in the expressive and receptive domains. These longitudinal data suggest continuity between the receptive-expressive gap observed in bilingual children and the receptive bilingualism often observed in adults.

Key words Bilingual development, simultaneous bilingualism, receptive-expressive gap, receptive vocabulary, expressive vocabulary, passive bilingualism

The development of the cognate advantage from elementary to middle school years in French-English bilinguals attending a dual language program in France

Erin Quirk, Psychology, Concordia University, Montreal, Canada

Cathy Cohen, b Laboratoire ICAR (UMR5191), Lyon, France;c Laboratoire d’Excellence ASLAN, (ANR-10-LABX-0081), Lyon, France;d Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France

Abstract The cognate advantage in bilingual children varies in strength across groups and individuals, in particular on receptive measures (e.g. picture-identification). This variation may be due to children’s developing ability to benefit from cognates in such tasks, yet longitudinal studies of this phenomenon, especially with older children, are rare. Using longitudinal and cross-sectional analyses of picture-identification performance in French and English from 37 bilingual children attending a dual language program in France, this study investigates the cognate advantage across a wide range of ages (6–13 years old). The influence of children’s relative exposure on the cognate advantage is also investigated. We find that significant differences in cognate versus non-cognate performance emerge only after the first years of elementary school. Children show marked growth in late elementary and middle school years, but only on the English task. The strength of the cognate advantage in picture-ID is inversely related to exposure to that language. These findings are discussed in relation to the nature of these children’s exposure and properties of cognates in the two languages. Implications for dual language pedagogy are also discussed.

Key words Bilingual education, childhood bilingualism, dual language program, language ability, metalinguistic knowledge, second language acquisition

Spaces of dissonance in dual language: teacher sense-making of a new biliteracy strategy

Ana Solano-Campos, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA

Meg Burns, Lesley University, Cambridge, MA, USA

Abstract In this article, we examine the underexplored link between teacher sense-making and professional development on paired literacy approaches. Grounded in a year-long qualitative study in a Dual Language Bilingual Education (DLBE) program in Massachusetts, we recount the experiences of dual language teachers learning about and implementing a biliteracy strategy that connects oracy and literacy, Lotta Lara, for the first time. We found that teachers’ acts of sense-making and sense-giving were meaningful examples of the ways in which spaces of dissonance provide opportunities for critical praxis and transformative change. Based on our findings, we join the extant literature in arguing for the urgency of specialized biliteracy training for dual language teachers.

Spanish language proficiency in dual language and English as a second language models: the impact of model, time, teacher, and student on Spanish language development

Trish Morita-Mullaney, Jennifer Renn, a Department of Curriculum and Instruction, College of Education, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA

Ming Ming Chiu, b Department of Special Education and Counselling, Faculty of Education and Human Development, The Education University of Hong Kong, Ting Kok, Hong Kong

Abstract The past two decades or so has seen a burgeoning of research in specific varieties of English. As the command of specialised English strongly correlates with students’ needs for academic and professional success, the position of ESP as a dominant research trend continues to be cemented. However, in view of important changes in academic and professional contexts (Bhatia and Bremner 2014; Hyland and Jiang 2019), state-of-the-art research and authoritative voices are clearly needed to researchers and practitioners in varied strands of using English for specific purposes. The volume under review is a timely response to this deficit and offers a comprehensive discussion of key topics in research, theory, and...

Key words xxx, xxx, xxx, xxx

Danping Wang: Multilingualism and Translanguaging in Chinese Language Classrooms

Jean-Marc Dewaele, Department of Applied Linguistics and Communication, Birkbeck, University of London, London, UK

Abstract In this study, we examine the Spanish proficiency progress of elementary Spanish-English bilinguals in three types of language program models: a dual language bilingual education (DLBE) model with a 90/10 language allocation, a DLBE model with a 50/50 language allocation, and an English as a Second Language (ESL) model over an academic year. In the domain of speaking, individual student characteristics were most predictive of progress. For listening and reading, time had the greatest impact on their Spanish language growth. With writing, the most impactful moderator was the teacher, and this was most predictive in the DLBE 90/10 model. Implications point to the need to provide immersive writing instruction and to arrange DLBE schedules to ensure the inclusion of writing. Oftentimes in 50/50 DLBE models, the domain of writing is least covered within the partner language with English taking precedence due to testing accountability. As provisions for dual language bilingual education are increasing, this study holds important implications for this model's impact on Spanish-English bilinguals’ Spanish proficiency. Future studies will examine outcomes across time among emergent bilinguals in their native language, along with the potential influences of the student, the teacher, and the demographics of the school and community.

Key words dditive bilingualism, bilingual education, biliteracy, dual language immersion, language testing, language proficiency

Cross-linguistic differences in the associations between morphological awareness and reading in Spanish and English in young simultaneous bilinguals

Rebecca A. Marks, a Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA;b Brain & Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA;c MGH Institute of Health Professions, Boston, MI, USA

Xin Sun, Eva McAlister López, Nia Nickerson, Isabel Hernandez, a Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

Valeria C. Caruso, d Psychiatry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

Teresa Satterfield, e Romance Languages and Literatures, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

Ioulia Kovelman, a Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

Abstract This study aimed to clarify the relations between morphological awareness and literacy skills in Spanish and English in young simultaneous bilingual learners. Guided by theoretical perspectives on the associations between morphological awareness and word- versus sentence-level literacy skills, and their transfer between bilinguals’ two languages, we asked bilingual children (N = 90; M = 8.07 years old) to complete dual-language literacy assessments. First, we observed cross-linguistic differences in the associations between morphology and reading. In English, morphological awareness was directly related to word reading and reading comprehension, whereas in Spanish, the association with reading comprehension was fully mediated by vocabulary and single word reading. Second, we observed cross-linguistic associations from English word reading to Spanish reading comprehension, and from Spanish reading comprehension to English reading comprehension. Our findings inform bilingual literacy theory by revealing both cross-linguistic differences and bidirectional associations between literacy skills across typologically-distinct orthographies. In particular, children’s word-level skills transferred from the language of schooling (English) into their heritage language (Spanish), and their broader reading comprehension skills transferred from the heritage language to support English. Taken together, these findings support the value of bilingual heritage language maintenance for reading achievement in children’s dominant language of literacy instruction.

Key words Biliteracy, heritage languages, morphological awareness, reading comprehension, dual first-language acquisition, cross-linguistic transfer

期刊简介

The Journal is multidisciplinary and focuses on all aspects of bilingualism and bilingual education around the world. Theoretical and conceptual analysis, foundational and applied research using qualitative or quantitative approaches, critical essays, and comparative book reviews are all invited. Contributions from varied disciplines are welcome: linguistics, sociology, psychology, education, law, women’s studies, history and economics, informatics included.

该杂志是多学科的，关注世界各地双语和双语教育的各个方面。理论和概念分析、使用定性或定量方法的基础和应用研究、评论文章和比较书评均欢迎来稿。欢迎来自不同学科的投稿：语言学、社会学、心理学、教育学、法学、妇女研究、历史和经济学、信息学。

Book reviews should be no more than 2000 words and should include the full bilbiographic details of the reviewed book.

书评不应超过2000字，需要包括被评书的完整传记细节。

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