历史社会学如何研究帝国史?Kumar2017新著荐读
Kumar, Krishan. 2017. “The Time of Empire: Temporality and Genealogy in the Development of European Empires.” Thesis Eleven 139 (1): 113–28.
Kumar是借此机会来介绍他的新书,将于今年上市的
Kumar以Sewell与Skocpol于1980年代的争论说起——比较方法到底适用于历史分析吗?如何保持历史分析中的时间性?Skocpol是冻结时间(比如中、法、俄比较跨历史可能相互影响但放在一起作求同求异),但Sewell反对。Kumar观点似乎持中——他既要比较,但又不想冻结时间,那怎么办呢?
他以帝国研究为例,认为:
1. 各个帝国是有先后次序的,并形成了a great chain of empires.
each empire does not simply exist in historical time but in a historical sequence or succession.
2. 这种次序,应进一步被看成一种传统tradition,因而看似断裂实则连续。
There is, we may say, a tradition of empire in the West, of which each empire is deeply conscious. It shapes their way of thinking and behaving. Time here not only separates; it also joins.
3. 各帝国间以一种系谱的方式体现出相似性与差异性。
4. 帝国之间是相互影响的。
5. 而一旦谈tradition,就不能像Skocpol或下面说的Go(2011)那样,自己搞个框架去套,而是要进入历史行动者,看当时的人们怎么理解这些传统,受到这些传统的制约。
但若回顾社会学对帝国的研究,实则可怜。
1. 多数是出于历史学家而非社会学家
2. 社会学家没有分析出时间性,例如著名的Eisenstadt的《帝国的政治体系》,而晚近的中生代社会学家Julian Go(2011)著作Patterns of Empire,只是复制了Skocpol的方法。
3. 历史学家也不分伯仲,例如Jane Burbank and Frederick Cooper’s Empires in World History (2010)只使用了序列时间(chronology),从罗马和中国(秦汉?)到二战。为此,Kumar批评——要序列,也要系谱。
But there is no real attempt to bring out a tradition of empire, no attention to the impact of empires on each other through time. Empires succeed each other, but that succession has a purely chronological rather than genealogical significance.
那么,Kumar具体怎么处理他的“帝国”呢?
1. Rome, parent of empire
2. Translatio imperii(=translation of empire)
3. Empire and nation
从这两部分标题就看出来了,Kumar是要谈传统中有变,变中有继承。
——history not just as the past, as material to be examined for comparative purposes, but history as change and development, history as the introduction of novelty
首先,罗马帝国的“帝国”,为当时历史人物认为是具有以下特征:
What were the elements that later thinkers thought defined the Roman imperial experience?
——世界主义Cosmopolitanism=The Romans too saw their empire as global.
——公民身份Citizenship=available to all in the empire
——文明化使命the civilizing mission=Alexandrian inheritance(后加入Christianity)
——普适性universality=The Roman empire saw itself as the only true empire in the world, the source of the world’s civilization and the guardian and guarantor of that civilization(作者这一点跟中国一样~~)
到了罗马帝国之后,开始有一系列帝国自称是继承者,比如神圣罗马帝国,比如俄罗斯(第三罗马)。这些带来了最直接的冲击是:在罗马时代看来,empire was singular and universal, that there could only be one empire in the world.
最直接的复数化就是由于科技革命和海外殖民(殖民方式与罗马已经不同),有了比较接近原来罗马帝国的land empire,和新生的oversea empire之别——后一种里最早最代表性的是西班牙。
在海外殖民过程中,产生了帝国之间的经验传递,不断形成新的“tradition”。
There were other ways in which later empires could both learn from and distance themselves from earlier empires. If the British ‘Second Empire’ learned from the first, the Austrian Habsburgs learned from their earlier Spanish kin.
相较于更为关注的帝国——民族国家划分,当然存在冲突,比如:
Nations, however superior to other nations they think they are, accept that the world is a world of nation-states, in which there will therefore be plurality and diversity.
Empires, in principle at least, believe in uniqueness and universality.
nations in principle tend towards homogeneity, empires towards heterogeneity.
Empires tend to look outwards, to the world as a whole, in which they believe they have a mission.(In their internal structures)
Nations too can be missionary, but their tendency is to be inward looking, in the cultivation and celebration of their particular national cultures.
Empires :Isolationism is an option for nation-states in a way not easy for empires(中国是例外)
但是,Kumar也给出了自己的回答:他认为,在早期现代帝国中并没有nationalism,因为那时根本没有这种观念。要关注的是the emergence and growing importance of nation-ness in the empire,是dominant groups的变化(例如英国有Anglo-Saxon racialism形成了威胁,但是rulers struggled to contain it,因为帝国里的非白人、或非欧洲人太多了),形成了以下的光谱:
民族国家意识在帝国最为fusion的:英/法帝国
居中:俄国
民族国家意识在帝国中最不fusion: 奥斯曼、哈布斯堡
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