全文 | 美国反垄断立法的最近动态与互联网平台管理
一、引言
二、司法调查及诉讼
史诗游戏公司分别起诉苹果及谷歌公司反垄断自诉案[1]
案情简介
诉讼争点
关于本案的“相关市场”应如何界定?由此连带产生的问题是,究竟“游戏”应如何定义? 被告苹果公司在本案“相关市场”范围内是否具有垄断的地位?其具体行为是否构成不法的垄断行为? 纵使被告的行为不构成非法垄断,是否仍然违反了加州反不正当竞争法?
法院判决
后续发展
联邦贸易委员会诉脸书案
三、立法提案
“美国创新及线上选择法”(American Innovation and Choice Online Act)[14]
“终止平台垄断法”(Ending Platform Monopolies Act)[39]
“平台竞争及机会法”(Platform Competition and Opportunity Act)[49]
“2021年激活服务转换以强化兼容及竞争法”(“ACCESS 法”)[58]
“并购申报费现代化法”(Merger Filing Fee Modernization Act of 2021)[74]
“2021年州反垄断执行管辖地法”(State Antitrust Enforcement Venue Act of 2021)[75]
四、行政举措
第14036号总统行政命令
联邦贸易委员会
联邦司法部
五、结论
注释(上下滑动阅览)
【1】参见Epic Games, Inc. v. Apple, Inc., 493 F.Supp.3d 817 (N.D. Cal. 2020); Complaint for Injunctive Relief, Epic Games, Inc. v. Google LLC, Case No. 3:20-cv-05671 (N.D. Cal. August 13, 2020)。史诗公司另外也在澳大利亚、欧盟和英国等地分别起诉。在澳洲的案件,联邦上诉法院已经拒绝了苹果公司认为全案应一并移转到美国法院处理的请求,判认应持续进行。目前新南威尔士州联邦地区法院已经裁定将于2022年11月28日展开预定为期6周的庭审。参见Epic Games, Inc v Apple Inc., [2021] FCAFC 122 (Fed. Court of Australia)。
【2】以苹果公司为例,从这个诉讼的证据开示(发现程序discovery)过程可以看到,该公司的30%佣金并非一体适用。例如,至少从2018年开始苹果公司为了保住Netflix公司继续作为其App Store的客户,就另行同意只对该公司收取15%甚至更低的佣金。参见E-Mail from Peter Stern to Philip Schiller on July 30, 2018, as Plaintiff’s Exhibit PX-0421, Epic Games, Inc. v. Apple, Inc., Case No. 4:20-cv-05640, available at https://embed.documentcloud.org/documents/21043962-2018-july-netflix-tried-to-get-lower-than-15-percent-no-tv-app/#document/p1(Peter Stern 当时是苹果公司云服务的副总裁,Philip Schiller 当时是苹果公司总管全球产品行销的资深副总裁(Senior Vice President, Worldwide Product Marketing))。这与苹果公司行政总裁Tim Cook后来在国会听证会上表示,该公司对于每个在其平台上的软件开发者的佣金费率政策一体适用的证词相互矛盾。参见U.S. House of Representatives, Subcommittee on Antitrust, Commercial, and Administrative Law of the Committee of the Judiciary, Hearings on Online Platforms and Market Power, Part 6: Examining the Dominance of Amazon, Apple, Facebook, and Google (July 29, 2020), available at https://judiciary.house.gov/calendar/eventsingle.aspx?EventID=3113 (Tim Cook’s response to Rep. Henry Johnson’s question: “We treat every developer the same. We have open and transparent rules... It’s a rigorous process, because we care so deeply about privacy and security and quality. We do look at every app before it goes on.” )。
【3】本案当事人主动放弃使用陪审机制,所以是由法官直接审判(bench trial)。在庭审过程中双方为了争辩“游戏”应如何定义便耗用了相当长的时间(因为会直接影响到如何界定本案“相关市场”的范围)。参见Newcal Industries, Inc. v. Ikon Office Solution, 513 F.3d 1038 (9th Cir. 2008)(“相关市场”必须兼具地理市场与产品市场的认定); Eastman Kodak Co. v. Image Technology Services, 504 U.S. 451 (1992)(认定为单一品牌的后手或后续市场是否适当必须以消费者所面对的商业实况作为事实认定的取决基础,不过后来有五个联邦上诉法院对此案的适用范围做了限缩,认为只要消费者知悉限制性的政策而且不受在其完成购买后政策改变的影响时,就没有单一品牌后手或后续市场的存在)。本案的主审法官基本上采取了后来多数联邦上诉法院的见解,不支持原告对后手市场的主张。
【4】依据联邦最高法院在上引Eastman Kodak Co. v. Image Technology Services案的判决(参见上注),特定产品在相关市场的份额一般要达到65%左右才有相当可能会被法院判定初步具备了垄断力。有的联邦巡回上诉法院在后续的案件采取了更为保守、更高的门槛,认为要达到70%甚至更高方可。参见Kolon Industries Inc. v. E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Co., 748 F.3d 160 (4th Cir. 2014)。本案法院判认,在涉案的三年期间当中,被告在移动游戏交易相关市场的份额约为52%至57%左右。
【5】参见California Business and Professions Code (BPC) § 17200(其原文为:“As used in this chapter, unfair competition shall mean and include any unlawful, unfair or fraudulent business act or practice and unfair, deceptive, untrue or misleading advertising and any act prohibited by Chapter 1 (commencing with Section 17500) of Part 3 of Division 7 of the Business and Professions Code”)。
【6】Tim Higgins, Apple Cedes Ground as Larger Fights Over App Store Brew in Court, Congress, Wall Street Journal, September 2, 2021, 该报道中文版于2021年9月4日更新刊出,载于https://cn.wsj.com/articles/苹果公司就app-store规则作出让步,未来恐面临更大纷争-11630643405?tesla=y。
【7】Complaint, State of New York v. Facebook, Inc., Case No. 1:20-cv-03589 (D.D.C. December 9, 2020), available at https://ag.ny.gov/sites/default/files/state_of_new_york_et_al._v._facebook_inc._-_filed_public_complaint_12.11.2020.pdf.
【8】Memorandum Opinion and Order, State of New York v. Facebook, Inc., Case No. 1:20-cv-03589 (D.D.C. June 28, 2021).
【9】详细的介绍与分析可参见拙著,论数字市场和网络平台的竞争与垄断 —— 国际实证调研梳理与欧、美最近发展,《竞争政策与研究》2021年第2期,第7-30页。
【10】First Amended Compliant for Injunctive and Other Equitable Relief, Federal Trade Commission v. Facebook, Inc., Case No. 20-cv-03590 (D.D.C. August 19, 2021).
【11】主审本案的詹姆斯‧博斯伯格(James E. Boasberg)法官撰写了一偏颇为生动有趣的裁定书,开始就是一个问句:“第二回走运了?”(Second time lucky?),继而用了48页的篇幅来论述为何原告修改后的初步举证可以在这个阶段过关。不过法官也提到,原告要想证明所有的指控将是一项非常艰钜的工作,因此最终是否会获得胜诉还在未定之天。无论如何,这个发展对于脸书公司而言无疑是一个相当大的挫败。因为无论最终的判决结果如何,双方一旦进入发现程序(或证据开示)就意味著有许多该公司内部过去不为外界知悉的资料、信息将面临被逐一扒出的风险,对该公司造成更多的负面影响。参见Memorandum Opinion, Federal Trade Commission v. Facebook, Inc., Case No. 20-cv-03590 (D.D.C. January 11, 2022)。
【12】这项调查聚焦在三个面向:(1)汇集数字市场竞争(或反竞争)问题的相关资料信息、(2)调查具有优势地位的超大型平台服务提供者是否从事了反竞争的行为、以及(3)检视既有的反垄断法规、竞争政策与执法情况能适当处理相关的问题。参见Digital Markets Investigation: Antitrust Investigation of the Rise and Use of Market Power Online and the Adequacy of Existing Antitrust Laws and Current Enforcement Levels, U.S. House of Representatives Committee on the Judiciary (2019), available at https://judiciary.house.gov/issues/issue/?IssueID=14921。
【13】Investigation of Competition in Digital Markets, Majority Staff Report and Recommendations, Subcomm. on Antitrust, Commerce and Administrative Law of the House Comm. on the Judiciary, 116th Cong. (2020), available at https://judiciary.house.gov/uploadedfiles/competition_in_digital_markets.pdf.
【14】H.R. 3816, “American Innovation and Choice Online Act”, 107th Cong., 1st Sess. (2021), available at https://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/house-bill/3816/text。这个草案的原始名称是“美国选择及线上创新法”(American Choice and Innovation Online Act),在司法委员会对法案的审定(markup)程序中经该委员会主席杰里·纳德勒(Jerrold “Jerry” Nadler)提议修改为目前的名称并获得该委员会的支持通过。参见Amendment in the Nature of a Substitute to H.R. 3816 Offered by Mr. Nadler of New York, Markups, H.R. 3843, the Merger Filing Fee Modernization Act of 2021, et al., H. Comm. on the Judiciary, 117th Cong. (June 21, 2021), available at https://www.congress.gov/117/meeting/house/112818/documents/BILLS-117-HR3816-N000002-Amdt-5.pdf。
【15】参见H.R. 3816, § 2(g)(4)。依据草案目前的文句,“关键贸易伙伴”是指有能力对商业使用者(A)限制或阻碍接触或取用其用户〔的相关数据〕或是(B)为了对其用户或消费者有效提供服务所需的工具或服务的贸易伙伴〔按,即指平台服务提供者而言〕(其原文为:“The term ‘‘critical trading partner’’ means a trading partner that has the ability to restrict or impede — (A) the access of a business user to its users or customers; or (B) the access of a business user to a tool or service that it needs to effectively serve its users or customers.”)。参见H.R. 3816, § 2(g)(6)。
【16】Dana Mattioli and Ryan Tracy, House Bills Seek to Break Up Amazon and Other Big Tech Companies, Wall Street Journal, Updated June 11, 2016, available at https://www.wsj.com/articles/amazon-other-tech-giants-could-be-forced-to-shed-assets-under-house-bill-11623423248.
【17】H.R. 3816, § 2(a)(1)(“advantages the covered platform operator’s own products, services, or lines of business over those of another business user”).
【18】同上注,§ 2(b)(1), (2), (3), (6), and (8)。
【19】同上注,§ 2(c)(1), (2)。
【20】United States v. Grinnell Corporation, 384 U.S. 563 (1966).
【21】United States v. Microsoft Corporation, 253 F.3d 34 (D.C. Cir. 2001).
【22】H.R. 3816, § 2(g)(4).
【23】H.R. 3816, § 2(a)(1).
【24】“双面向”或“双边”市场,顾名思义,是指两种不同类型的用户(商家和消费者)透过一个中介机构或平台(如银行卡或信用卡的提供者(银行或银行卡组织))来产生作用或从事交易,其中任何一方的决策都会影响到另一方的态度和行为。例如,一旦银行决定提高信用卡的佣金比例,许多中、小型的商家基于成本利益的考虑,便可能选择不再接受该银行或银行组织的信用卡,但也同时必须承担潜在客户流失的风险。从经济学的概念而言,“数字平台”(digital platforms)可以理解为连接两个或多个使用者群体的中介(intermediaries),从彼此直接或间接的网络效应(network effect)获得利益,并透过多个不同但可明确识别的使用者群体连结形成双面向或多面向市场。参见Jean-Charles Rochet and Jean Tirole, Platform Competition in Two-Sided Markets, 1 Journal of the European Economic Association 990 (2003), available at https://academic.oup.com/jeea/article/1/4/990/2280902;另参见Ohio v. American Express Co., 585 U.S. ___, 138 S.Ct. 2274 (2018)。
【25】Lina M. Khan, The Separation of Platforms and Commerce, 119 Colum. L. Rev. 973 (2019)(本文作者已于2021年6月15日起担任联邦贸易委员会委员兼主席)。
【26】Adrian Croft, What Is Sideloading? Everything to Know about Tech’s Latest Flash Point, Fortune, July 14, 2021, available at https://fortune.com/2021/07/14/what-is-sideloading-apple-ios-google-android/.
【27】H.R. 3816, § 2(b)(1); S. 2992, § 2(b)(1).
【28】Apple, Inc., Building a Trusted Ecosystem for Millions of Apps: The Important Role of App Store Protections (June 2021), available at https://www.apple.com/privacy/docs/Building_a_Trusted_Ecosystem_for_Millions_of_Apps.pdf.
【29】Filipe Espósito, Comment: Apple’s rant against app sideloading on iOS contradicts itself thanks to macOS, 9to5Mac, November 3, 2021, available at https://9to5mac.com/2021/11/03/comment-apples-rant-against-app-sideloading-on-ios-contradicts-itself-thanks-to-macos/;
【30】D. Bruce Hoffman & Garrett D. Shinn, Self-Preferencing and Antitrust: Harmful Solutions for an Improbable Problem, Competition Policy Int’l Antitrust Chronicle 5-8 (June 2021)(本文第一作者为特朗普政府的联邦贸易委员会竞争局局长(Director, Bureau of Competition, 2017-19))。
【31】这是反映了芝加哥学派一贯的主张,也就是对反垄断的规制和执法“过犹不及”的顾虑和恐惧,往往造成的伤害反而会远超不从事规制或过严执行的代价。意思是当本来应该要刻意滞后的法律超越了市场的发展,并使用“一刀切”的方式来引领市场的导向时,就很容易发生“假阳性”(false positive)的检测结果,把原本其实有助于市场竞争的行为界定为违法。这样一来就会连带影响整个市场的对应,造成许多资源的错置,也就增添了各种无谓的“错误成本”(error costs)。参见Joint Submission of Antitrust Economists, Legal Scholars, and Practitioners to the House Judiciary Committee on the State of Antitrust Law and Implications for Protecting Competition in Digital Markets, Int’l Ctr. For L. And Econ., at 3 (May 15, 2020), available at https://laweconcenter.org/resource/joint-submission-of-antitrust-economists-legal-scholars-and-practitioners-to-the-house-judiciary-committee-on-the-state-of-antitrust-law-and-implications-for-protecting-competition-in-digital-market/。
【32】草案是由民主党籍、来自罗得岛州(Rhode Island)第1选区的众议员大卫‧希悉里尼(David Cicilline)和共和党籍、来自科罗拉多州(Colorado)第4选区的众议员肯·巴克(Ken Buck)共同提出,目前已有14名民主党议员和8名共和党议员加入成为“共同提案人”(co-sponsors)。
【33】S. 2992, American Innovation and Choice Online Act, 107th Cong., 1st Sess. (2021), available at https://www.congress.gov/117/bills/s2992/BILLS-117s2992is.pdf。这是由司法委员会反垄断小组委员会主席、来自明尼蘇達州(Minnesota)的民主党籍参议员埃米·克洛布彻(Amy J. Klobuchar)和该小组委员会的副主席(ranking member)、来自艾奥瓦州(Iowa)的共和党籍参议员查克·格拉斯利(Charles E. “Chuck” Grassley)联名提出,象征对法案内容的共识已超越了党派对立。
【34】Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914, Pub. L. 63–212, 38 Stat. 73 (1914), as amended and codified at 15 U.S.C. §§ 12–27, and 29 U.S.C. §§ 52–53.
【35】S. 225, 117th Cong., 1st Sess. (2021)。本案的提案人是埃米·克洛布彻参议员,参见前注33。因为她是反垄断小组委员会的主席,因此此一提案被认为通过的概率较高,也受到了更大的关注。
【36】同上注,§ 4。现行法的举证门槛是“实质降减”(substantially lessen)竞争。至于何谓“产生重大降减竞争感知风险”,草案在第3条第(b)款给出了五种情形作为并购是否触法的检测依据:(1)是否会在相关市场里产生显著的市场集中;(2)是否会取得50%以上的市场份额、对相关市场取得显著的支配或有相当可能取得与收购者从事竞争实体的控制;(3)是否会产生实体或资产上的组合并有相当合理的可能在相关市场阻挠或干扰其竞争者之间的协调互动;(4)是否让收购方单方和获利取得对市场的支配抑或相当程度促进其竞争者彼此间在相关市场的协调互动;或(5)该收购或并购不属于第7A条第(c)款规定的交易并且让收购方获得累进总值超过50亿美元有投票权的证券或资产。
【37】同上注,§ 9 (insert after Clayton Act § 26, to be codified at 15 U.S.C. § 26a)。
【38】根据媒体的报道,“硅谷四巨头”除了本身在国会的游说工作外,另外还资助成立了若干策略联盟组织,至少在此事上愿意“化敌为友”,共同对应国会的立法(既合作、又竞争)。其中最主要的游说组织是“网络选择”(NetChoice)和“互联商业协会”(Connected Commerce Council,简称3C)。这四家互联网企业在2010年以前鲜少与国会打交道,但是从2010年开始,连续10年投入到国会游说的预算都呈现了大幅的增长。例如,仅在2020年,亚马逊就投入了1,800万美元,脸书则投入了2,000万美元。如果加总起来,这些超大型网络平台在10年当中一共投入了将近5亿美元从事各种相关的游说工作(包括反对国会的针对性反垄断立法)。参见Tony Romm, Tech Giants Led By Amazon, Facebook and Google Spent Nearly Half A Billion on Lobbying over the Past Decade, New Data Shows, Washington Post, January 22, 2020, available at https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2020/01/22/amazon-facebook-google-lobbying-2019/。此外,它们还对智库、商业组织和研讨活动等从事了不同程度的经济捐输,试图扩大对相关公共政策的影响力。站在这些财力雄厚企业对立面的,传统上是一些消费者保护团体、民权组织和个别的社会运动人士等,他们的实力基本上难以望其项背。不过自2022年开始,一些原本与这四家企业有相当渊源但后来却因种种原因站到了对立面的硅谷实业家(例如脸书公司的共同创始人Chris Hughes和eBay公司的共同创始人Pierre Omidyar)也组建了一个支持国会严格管控立法的游说组织,称为称为“技术监督项目”(Tech Oversight Project)并投入了可观的经费。这也注定双方会短兵相接,进行一场鏖战。参见Cat Zakrzewski, Big Tech Foes Launch ‘Campaign-Style’ Initiative to Push for Antitrust Legislation, Washington Post, January 18, 2021, at A17, available at https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2022/01/17/big-tech-oversight-project-antitrust/。
【39】H.R. 3825, “Ending Platform Monopolies Act”, 107th Cong., 1st Sess. (2021), available at https://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/house-bill/3825/text.
【40】此处对于“涵盖平台”的定义与前述的“美国创新及线上选择法”草案相同,在目前就是专指脸书、亚马逊、谷歌及苹果公司等四家企业所运营的网络平台。参见H.R. 3825, § 5(6)。
【41】H.R. 3825, § 2(a), (b).
【42】H.R. 3825, § 3(c).
【43】H.R. 3825, § 4(b).
【44】H.R. 3825, § 3(d).
【45】例如,Federal Deposit Insurance Act (a/k/a Bank Merger Act), Pub. L. No. 797, 64 Stat. 892 (1950), as amended, codified at 12 U.S.C. § 1828(c); Rail Revitalization and Regulatory Reform Act of 1976 (a/k/a 4-R Act), Pub. L. 94–210, 90 Stat. 31 (1976); Staggers Rail Act of 1980, 96-448, 94 Stat. 1895 (1980)。
【46】OECD, Structural Separation in Regulated Industries: Report on Implementing the OECD Recommendation 9 (2016), available at https://www.oecd.org/daf/competition/Structural-separation-in-regulated-industries-2016report-en.pdf (“[S]eparation limits the need for regulation that is difficult and costly to devise and implement, and may be only partly effective; it improves information; and it eliminates the risk of cross-subsidies by the incumbent from its non-competitive to its competitive segments.”).
【47】House Investigative Report, 同前注13,第381页。
【48】例如,亚马逊于2006年进入到视频点播的市场,即目前的“亚马逊首要视频”(Amazon Prime Video),已对谷歌的“油管”(YouTube)形成了相当大的竞争;苹果公司则是在2020年宣布准备开发一套新的检索系统与谷歌竞争。如果按照这个立法提案,就不再可能会有这些发展。参见Amazon Video Direct poses challenge to YouTube, BBC News, 10 May 2016, available at https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-36259782;Tim Bradshaw and Patrick McGee, Apple Develops Alternative to Google Search, Financial Times, October 28, 2020, available at https://www.ft.com/content/fd311801-e863-41fe-82cf-3d98c4c47e26;另参见Patrick F. Todd, Digital Platforms and the Leverage Problem, 98 Nebraska L. Rev. 486 (2019)。
【49】H.R. 3826, “Platform Competition and Opportunity Act”, 107th Cong., 1st Sess. (2021), available at https://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/house-bill/3826/text.
【50】可作为这样策略代表的是脸书公司(或Meta公司)执行长马克‧札克柏格(Mark Zackerberg)在2008年一封电子邮件当中的表述:“最好用买的就不用竞争”(It is better to buy than compete)。这段文句也成为联邦贸易委员会修正起诉书当中首先使用的引据。参见前注10,第1页。
【51】15 U.S.C. § 18A(c).
【52】H.R. 3826, 117th Cong., 1st Sess., § 2(a)-(b) (2021).
【53】这是在众议院司法委员会的审议过程中由北卡罗来纳州第二选区的民主党籍众议员黛博拉·罗斯(Deborah K. Ross)提出的修正动议,并获得委员会通过。参见Amendment to the Amendment in the Nature of a Substitute to H.R. 3826, Offered by Ms. Ross of North Carolina, Markups, H.R. 3843, the Merger Filing Fee Modernization Act of 2021, et al., House Comm. On The Judiciary, 117th Cong. (June 24, 2021), https://docs.house.gov/meetings/JU/JU00/20210623/112818/BILLS-117-HR3826-R000305-Amdt-1.pdf。
【54】参见Chicago Bridge & Iron Co. v. Federal Trade Commission, 534 F.3d 410 (5th Cir.2008); St. Alphonsus Medical Center - Nampa Inc. v. St. Luke’s Health System, Ltd., 778 F.3d 775 (9th Cir. 2015)。
【55】同前注35。另一个草案是密苏里州共和党籍参议员乔希·霍利(Josh D. Hawley)提出的“21世纪托拉斯破除法”。参见S. 1074, The Trust-Busting for the Twenty-First Century Act, 117th Cong., 1st Sess. (2021)。
【56】Geoffrey Parker, Georgios Petropoulos and Marshall Van Alstyne, Platform Mergers and Antitrust, 30 Industrial and Corporate Change 1307 (2021), available at https://academic.oup.com/icc/article/30/5/1307/6365871#302930142.
【57】Jeff Farrah, Restrictions on Acquisitions Would Stifle the US Startup Ecosystem, Not Rein In Big Tech, Techcrunch, May 19, 2021, available at https://techcrunch.com/2021/05/19/restrictions-on-acquisitions-would-stifle-the-us-startup-ecosystem-not-rein-in-big-tech/(本文作者是国家风险投资协会(National Venture Capital Association)的法务长)。
【58】 H.R. 3849, “Augmenting Compatibility and Competition by Enabling Service Switching Act of 2021”, 107th Cong., 1st Sess. (2021), available at https://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/house-bill/3849/text.【59】H.R. 3849, §§ 3 and 4.【60】当网络平台的流量与“黏性”达到了一定程度的积累,包括平台本身的范围经济(economies of scope)扩充、数据角色日益加强、平均成本递减、规模收益递增(increasing returns to scale)效应、网络效应的扩散终至于供需链条的全球化等因素等逐步出现,整个数字市场就容易出现“倾斜效应”(tipping effect),快速向单一、具有超强优势(ultra-dominant)的服务提供者集中。一旦出现了这个状况,通常在开始时会见到有利于市场竞争的状态——是指进行激烈竞争希望能成为相关服务领域的领头羊——继而则是发展为一段长时期的“弱竞争”状态,让胜出或取得垄断地位的平台经营者可以透过其市场地位与控制力来不断寻租。参见Stigler Center for the Study of the Economy and the State, Committee for the Study of Digital Platforms, Market Structure and Antitrust Subcommittee Draft Report (May 15, 2019), at 39, available at https://www.judiciary.senate.gov/download/morton-written-submission。在双面像或双边市场,此种效应可进一步区分为四种类型:一是同边(面向)的效应,一是对面向(交互性)的效应还有直接与间接的效应,其中可能还参杂各种正面与负面的影响。参见Ravi Kumar, Understanding the Basics of Network Effects — The Power of the Platform, available at https://medium.com/world-of-iot/understanding-the-basics-of-network-effects-the-power-of-the-platform-2cfef215fe4a。【61】Marian-Andrei Rizoiu and Paul X. McCarthy, What These Researchers Discovered after Studying the Internet for 6 Years, World Economic Forum, 5 May 2021, available at https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/05/we-spent-six-years-scouring-billions-of-links-and-found-the-web-is-both-expanding-and-shrinking/.【62】House Investigative Report, 同前注13,第41-42页。【63】同前注59。作为对照,欧盟、中国以及美国加州等都已通过类似的法律,但美国在联邦层级却因为种种历史上的因素尚未通过全国共同施行的立法。【64】Eastman Kodak Co. v. Image Technology Services., Inc., 504 U.S. 451(1992).
【65】United States v. Microsoft Corporation, 253 F.3d 34 (D.C. Cir. 2001), Settled, 231 F.Supp.2d 144 (D.D.C. 2002), Modified Final Judgment, Docket No. 9801232 (D.D.C. September 7, 2006), available at https://www.justice.gov/atr/case-document/file/503526/download.【66】此即通称的“关键设施法则”。参见Otter Tail Power Co. v. United States, 410 U.S. 366 (1973)。不过后来联邦最高法院在一个案件的判决中只附带的把这个法则视为由各地区法院所创设的规制,既未直接给予认可,亦未予以否定。虽然这只是属于判决书内的一个“附带意见”或“附论”(dicta),并非直接与该案的判决法理相关,理论上应该不具司法判例的效力,但还是引发了此一法则是否依然有效的争议。参见Verizon Communications v. Law Offices of Curtis V. Trinko, LLP, 540 U.S. 398 (2004)。有主张此一法则应该实际上等于已经无效的学者把法院用附论来处理一个法则的方式称为“附论致死”(death by dicta)。参见Spencer Weber Waller and Brett Frischmann, Revitalizing the Essential Facilities Doctrine, 75 Antitrust L.J. 1, 3 (2008)。
【67】参见Aspen Skiing Co. v. Aspen Highlands Skiing Corporation, 472 U.S. 585 (1985)。不过这个判决引发了许多的争议,包括难以确定其涵盖的具体范围,因此联邦最高法院在后来的判决中又做了修正,进一步限缩这个例外情形的适用范围。参见Verizon v. Trinko, 同上注;Pacific Bell Telephone Co. v. linkLine Communications, Inc., 555 U.S. 438 (2009)。【68】47 U.S.C. § 251(a).【69】鉴于联邦最高法院在Trinko案的判决(前注66),下级联邦法院透过后续的判决逐渐形成了一个三步测试法。要求主张拒绝与其交易的原告必须举证具有垄断地位的被告:(1)终止了一个与其竞争者交易仍可一并获利的商业渠道;(2)持续向其他类似处境的客户出售相关的产品或提供服务;以及(3)愿意放弃短期利润是为了最终消弭竞争(反竞争),而非基于合法的商业目的才可能获得胜诉。参见Federal Trade Commission v. Qualcomm Inc., 969 F.3d 974 (9th Cir. 2020)。【70】Hanno F. Kaiser, Are “Closed Systems” an Antitrust Problem?, 7 Competition Policy Int’L 91 (2011), available at https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1844944.
【71】Randy Picker, Forcing Interoperability on Tech Platforms Would Be Difficult to Do, Promarket (Mar. 11, 2021), available at https://promarket.org/2021/03/11/interoperability-tech-platforms-1996-telecommunications-act/.
【72】一个典型的动态竞争是诺基亚和摩托罗拉公司。它们在传统电话和短信通讯原有的的优势都迅速地被智能手机取代。參見Nicolas Petit and David J Teece, Innovating Big Tech Firms and Competition Policy: Favoring Dynamic over Static Competition, 30 Industrial and Corporate Change 1168 (October 2021), available at https://academic.oup.com/icc/article/30/5/1168/6363708#325399933;另参见Michael D. Ryall, The New Dynamics of Competition, 91 Harvard Bus. Rev. 80 (June 2013), available at https://hbr.org/2013/06/the-new-dynamics-of-competition。【73】Justin (Gus) Hurwitz, Digital Duty to Deal, Data Portability, and Interoperability, in The Global Antitrust Institute Report on the Digital Economy, George Mason University Antonin Scalia Law School (November 2020), available at https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3733744#.【74】H.R. 3843, “Merger Filing Fee Modernization Act of 2021”, 107th Cong., 1st Sess. (2021), available at https://www.congress.gov/117/bills/hr3843/BILLS-117hr3843ih.pdf.【75】H.R. 3460, “State Antitrust Enforcement Venue Act of 2021”, 107th Cong., 1st Sess. (2021), available at https://www.congress.gov/117/bills/hr3460/BILLS-117hr3460ih.pdf.【76】联邦多重管辖诉讼司法审议庭是基于国会在1968年的一项立法授权设置,由联邦最高法院首席大法官(院长)聘请7名来自不同地区的联邦法官担任。其主要任务是(1)对于分别在不同联邦地区法院起诉、其中涉及一个或多个共同事实的民事案件决定是否需要予以协调、整合并移转到单一的联邦地区法院审理;以及(2)选定应受理的管辖法院并选派承审的法官。其目的是为了确保判解的一致性,避免令出多门,造成分歧与混淆,以及精简诉讼资源,避免浪费。参见Pub. L. 90-296, 82 Stat. 109 (1968), as amended and codified at 28 U.S.C. §1407。据该机构的官方网址信息显示,该法庭已经处理了超过60万宗案件,并裁定其中的2,750宗案件应合并审理(但未注明起讫的时间)。参见https://www.jpml.uscourts.gov/about-panel。
【77】Executive Order 14036 of July 9, 2021, Promoting Competition in the American Economy, 86 Fed. Reg. 36987 (2021).
【78】同上注,§ 5(c)。现行的水平并购准则是于2010年制订。联邦司法部和联邦贸易委员会已于2022年1月18日正式向社会各界公开谘询对相关准则修改的意见。参见FTC, Federal Trade Commission and Justice Department Seek to Strengthen Enforcement Against Illegal Mergers, Press Release, January 18, 2022, available at https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/press-releases/2022/01/ftc-and-justice-department-seek-to-strengthen-enforcement-against-illegal-mergers。【79】这种表面上的专利侵权诉讼和解,实际上却反而由专利权人出资“补偿”被指控侵权者以换取后者同意延后推出首个仿制药的做法也称为“反向和解”(reverse settlement)。基本的公共政策自然是鼓励诉讼当事人能以合议方式达成和解,减少诉讼的耗损,因此法院几乎没有任何理由不予以认可。但是这种套挂延迟给付条件的和解协议又会导致权利人的专利权即使已经到期,却还可以阻止竞争者的产品进入市场,于是形同变相延长了专利权的保护期间,让知名或关键药物的权利人(厂家)得以继续享有对相关市场的实际支配力并进行操控。因为另一个重要的公共政策是,为了鼓励风险承担与竞争,在首个仿制药正式上市以及之后的180天,其他的仿制药都不得推出上市。这是国会过去20年一直试图透过立法来处理的一个困难问题,但因为各种因素的参杂和纠葛(包括其中牵涉到的利益规模实在太大以及各方的游说力量等),迄今依然未果。联邦贸易委员会也对多家药厂起诉,但结果不一。不过自从联邦最高法院在2013年的一项判决出台后才开始有较大的胜面。参见Federal Trade Commission v. Actavis, Inc., 570 U.S. 136 (2013);In re Nexium Antitrust Litigation, 777 F.3d 9 (1st Cir. 2015);Impax Laboratories, Inc. v. Federal Trade Commission, 994 F.3d 484 (5th Cir. 2021)。
【80】同上注,§ 4。
【81】芝加哥学派的核心观点是,反垄断制度最主要、甚至就是唯一的宗旨是为了提升消费者的福祉,并非保护任何市场上的竞争者。参见Robert H. Bork, The Antitrust Paradox: A Policy at War with Itself (1978), at 107-115, 405。【82】Lina Khan, The New Brandeis Movement: America’s Antimonopoly Debate, 9 J. of European Competition Law & Practice 131 (March 2018);另参见Jacob M. Schlesinger, The Return of the Trustbusters, Wall St. J., August 27, 2021, available at https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-return-of-the-trustbusters-11630076102。【83】Louis D. Brandeis, A Curse of Bigness, Harper’s Weekly, January 10, 1914, contained as Ch. VIII, Other People’s Money and How the Bankers Use It (1914).【84】Tim Wu, The Curse of Bigness: Antitrust in the New Gilded Age (2018).【85】例如,Daniel A. Crane, How Much Brandeis Do The Neo-Brandeisians Want?, 64 Antitrust Bulletin 531 (2019), available at https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0003603X19875039;Herbert J. Hovenkamp, Is Antitrust's Consumer Welfare Principle Imperiled?, 45 J. of Corporation Law 101 (2019), available at https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/Delivery.cfm/SSRN_ID3537875_code711466.pdf?abstractid=3197329&mirid=1。
【86】FTC, FTC Rescinds 2015 Policy that Limited Its Enforcement Ability Under the FTC Act, Press Release, July 1, 2021, available at https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/press-releases/2021/07/ftc-rescinds-2015-policy-limited-its-enforcement-ability-under; Statement of Chair Lina M. Khan Joined by Commissioner Rohit Chopra and Commissioner Rebecca Kelly Slaughter on the Withdrawal of the Statement of Enforcement Principles Regarding “Unfair Methods of Competition” Under Section 5 of the FTC Act (July 1, 2021), available at https://www.ftc.gov/public-statements/2021/07/statement-chair-lina-m-khan-joined-commissioner-rohit-chopra-commissioner.【87】此一声明的主要内容有三:(1)委员会将依据作为反拖辣斯法基础的公共政策,即推进公共福祉(promotion of public welfare)作为指引;(2)委员会执法将依据类似合理(论理)分析的方式进行,在斟酌一切相关可促进效能与可在商业上予以合理化的因素后,遭指控或挑战的行为或实践必须对竞争造成伤害或有此可能;以及(3)如适用《薛尔曼法》或《克莱顿法》已足以处理因特定行为或实践所导致的反竞争损害,委员会将不太可能另行再对该行为或实践单独以反不正当竞争(即《联邦贸易委员会法》第5条)提出挑战。参见FTC, Statement of Enforcement Principles Regarding “Unfair Methods of Competition” Under Section 5 of the FTC Act, August 13, 2015, available at https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/press-releases/2015/08/ftc-issues-statement-principles-regarding-enforcement-ftc-act。【88】E.g., Jim Tankersley and Cecilia Kang, Biden’s Antitrust Team Signals A Big Swing at Corporate Titans, New York Times, July 24, 2021, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/24/business/biden-antitrust-amazon-google.html; Maya Crowden, Big Tech: A Resurgence of Antitrust Activism, Marcus Harris Foundation Blog, February 26, 2021, available at https://marcusharrisfoundation.org/blog/f/big-tech-a-resurgence-of-antitrust-activism.【89】FTC, FTC Votes to Update Rulemaking Procedures, Sets Stage for Stronger Deterrence of Corporate Misconduct, Press Release, July 1, 2021, available at https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/press-releases/2021/07/ftc-votes-update-rulemaking-procedures-sets-stage-stronger; FTC, Revisions to Rules of Practice, 86 Fed. Reg. 38542 (July 22, 2021), as codified at 16 C.F.R. §§ 0.3-0.20 (Ch. 1, Sub-Ch. A, Part 0), and §§ 1.7 – 1.20 (Ch. 1, Sub-Ch. A, Part 1, Subpart B).
【90】Magnuson-Moss Warranty—Federal Trade Commission Improvement Act, § 202, Pub. L. 93-637, 88 Stat. 2183 (1975), as amended and codified at 15 U.S.C. § 57a.
【91】参见Federal Trade Commission Improvements Act of 1980, §§ 7-12, Pub. L. 96-252, 94 Stat. 374 (1980)。关于联邦贸易委员会在1970年代的积极作为到其主席后来与国会产生严重龃龉的历史过程,参见FTC at 100: Michael Pertschuk’s Turbulent Years as FTC Chairman, FTC Watch Issue 865, January 15, 2015, available at https://www.mlexwatch.com/articles/1725/print?section=ftcwatch。【92】Jeffrey S. Lubbers, It’s Time to Remove the “Mossified” Procedures for FTC Rulemaking, 83 George Washington Law Review 1979 (2015), available at https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/Delivery.cfm/SSRN_ID2619748_code817486.pdf?abstractid=2560557&mirid=1.【93】AMG Capital Management LLC v. Federal Trade Commission, 593 U.S. (2021)(联邦最高法院推翻了自1973年法律修正来所有下级法院的相关判决,判认联邦贸易委员会无权依据《联邦贸易委员会法》第13条第(b)款(15 U.S.C. § 53(b))在民事诉讼中向法院请求被告赔偿(或偿还)所有的不当(法)得利(restitution)或追缴所得(disgorgement)。该委员会过去一直凭藉此种方式获得赔偿后再将获得的所有金额转分给各个实际受损害的当事人)。至于委员会决定撤诉的案件是Federal Trade Commission v. AbbVie Inc., 976 F.3d 327 (3rd Cir. 2020), cert. denied, 594 U.S. (2021)(关于专利药厂是否透过虚假诉讼与仿制药厂达成“延迟给付协议”或“反向和解”以维持一个名为“昂斯妥凝膠”(AndroGel®)或“睾酮素凝胶”(testosterone gel)相关市场的垄断地位)。【94】目前国会众议院已经通过了一项立法,准备反转联邦最高法院的判决结论(法院在9:0的判决书中只表示在现行法的框架下该委员会无此权限,如要更改,必须寻求通过其他的路径,包括请国会修法),并将全案移送参议院审议,但因为民主党在参议院目前只有一票的些微多数优势,此案能否获得通过还在未定之天。参见H.R. 2668, “Consumer Protection and Recovery Act”, 117th Cong. 1st Sess. (2021), available at https://www.congress.gov/117/bills/hr2668/BILLS-117hr2668eh.pdf; H.Res. 535, 117th Cong., 1st Sess., § 5 (July 20, 2021)(bill consolidation of H.R. 2467, H.R. 2668, and H.R. 3985), available at https://www.congress.gov/117/bills/hres535/BILLS-117hres535eh.pdf。【95】参见FTC at 100,同前注86。
【96】例如,该委员会于2021年12月启动了这套程序拟对模仿(假冒)政府机关或商业实体从事的欺诈行为予以规制。即使在修改程序时极力反对的两位共和党籍委员也对此投下了赞成票。参见FTC, FTC Launches Rulemaking to Combat Sharp Spike in Impersonation Fraud, Press Release, December 16, 2021, available at https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/press-releases/2021/12/ftc-launches-rulemaking-combat-sharp-spike-impersonation-fraud。【97】Jessica Rich, The FTC’s Magnuson-Moss Rulemaking Process – Still an Uphill Climb, JD Supra, January 11, 2022, available at https://www.jdsupra.com/legalnews/the-ftc-s-magnuson-moss-rulemaking-7757749/.
【98】FTC, FTC Rescinds 1995 Policy Statement that Limited the Agency’s Ability to Deter Problematic Mergers, Press Release, July 21, 2021, available at https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/press-releases/2021/07/ftc-rescinds-1995-policy-statement-limited-agencys-ability-deter; FTC, Statement Concerning Prior Approval and Prior Notice Provisions in Merger Cases, 60 Fed. Reg. 39745 (1995), available at https://www.ftc.gov/system/files/documents/public_statements/410471/frnpriorapproval.pdf.
【99】Hart–Scott–Rodino Antitrust Improvements Act of 1976, § 201, Pub. L. 94-435, 90 Stat. 1383 (1976), as amended and codified at 15 U.S.C. § 18a.
【100】FTC, Remarks of Chair Lina M. Khan Regarding the Proposed Rescission of the 1995 Policy Statement Concerning Prior Approval and Prior Notice Provisions, July 21, 2021, available at https://www.ftc.gov/system/files/documents/public_statements/1592338/lk_remarks_for_1995_rescission_-_final_-_1230pm.pdf.
【101】参见FTC, Statement of Regulatory Priorities, December 9, 2021, contained in Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs, OMB, Fall 2021 Agency Statements of Regulatory Priorities, available at https://www.reginfo.gov/public/jsp/eAgenda/StaticContent/202110/Statement_3084_FTC.pdf。这是依据比尔‧克林顿总统(William J. “Bill” Clinton)基于政府施政必须公开、透明,于1993年9月30日签署的第12866号总统行政命令的第6条第(a)款第(3)项规定而来,要求所有的行政部门机关必须提出年度的行政立法先决事项。参见Executive Order 12866 of September 30, 1993, Regulatory Planning and Review § 6(a)(3), 58 Fed. Reg. 51735 (1993), available at https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/executive-orders/pdf/12866.pdf。【102】近期另一个引起了广泛关注的发展是网络游戏领域中的“整并潮”。例如,知名的“侠盗猎车手V”(Grand Theft Auto V)游戏开发商Rockstar Games在英国的母公司Take-Two Interactive(简称TAKE2或T2,其在中国的分公司于2006年成立,称为“2K中国”)于2022年1月10日宣布将以127亿美元的空前价格收购另一个知名社交游戏公司星佳(Zynga,是《星佳城市》等游戏的开发商)。不过这项记录只维持了8天。微软公司(Microsoft Corporation)继而于2022年1月18日宣布将以687亿美元(每股95美元)现金收购动视暴雪公司(Activision Blizzard, Inc.)。紧随其后,索尼公司(Sony Corporation)旗下的索尼互动娱乐有限公司(Sony Interactive Entertainment LLC)也于2022年1月31日宣布将以360亿美元收购“命运”(Destiny,或译“天命”)和“光晕”(Halo)等大型多人线上第一人称射击游戏的开发商Bungie有限责任公司。这些交易显示,全球网络游戏市场(2020年的估值约为1,568亿美元)正在经历一个经营者集中的过程,与超大型网络平台过去25年的发展呈现非常近似的路径,也提供了一个绝佳的机会来检测反垄断执法机关将会依据如何的(新)标准来进行审批。此外,截至目前为止,对超大型网络平台的立法与执法几乎全都聚焦在“四巨头”,却完全没有触及微软公司。但是随著最近这项并购的宣布,如果能通过审批完成交易,即可让该公司结合其既有的云计算和其他软件开发项目,取得扩展进入所谓“元宇宙”市场的一张重要门票,也可望成为另一个超大型互联网平台的“巨头”。参见Shannon Liao and Nathan Grayson, Microsoft and Sony Are Buying up the Video Game World. The FTC Could Stop Them, Washington Post, February 8, 2022, available at https://www.washingtonpost.com/video-games/2022/02/08/why-microsoft-buy-activision-sony-bungie/;关于全球网络游戏规模与价值的实证调研,参见Global Industry Analysts Inc., Global Video Games Market to Reach $293.2 Billion by 2027, Cision PR Newswire, May 10, 2021, available at https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/global-video-games-market-to-reach-293-2-billion-by-2027--301287569.html。【103】U.S. Department of Justice (USDOJ), Assistant Attorney General Jonathan Kanter Delivers Remarks on Modernizing Merger Guidelines, January 18, 2022, prepared opening remarks for the joint press conference with FTC, available at https://www.justice.gov/opa/speech/assistant-attorney-general-jonathan-kanter-delivers-remarks-modernizing-merger-guidelines.【104】这个草案版本的要点包括:(1)技术标准或必要专利的权利人应具体指明其所认为被侵权的专利权为何以及其权利是如何遭到侵害,并向被指控的侵权方提出F/RAND要约;(2)有意愿的被许可方应在商业上合理的期间内予以回覆以推动协商的进行;以及(3)如双方进行诉讼,应以金钱损害赔偿为原则,排除性的救济(如永久禁令)虽然仍有可能,应该作为鲜为使用的例外性手段。参见USDOJ, USPTO and NIST, Draft Policy Statement on Licensing Negotiations and Remedies for Standards-Essential Patents Subject to Voluntary F/Rand Commitments, December 6, 2021, available at https://www.justice.gov/opa/press-release/file/1453826/download。【105】参议院司法委员会已于2022年1月20日以16:6的票数通过了对“美国创新及线上选择法”(草案)的审议,将移送该院的院会进行讨论和表决,也显示这个草案获得了两党多数议员的支持。在国会党争非常激烈的大环境下还能对这个本身富有相当争议性的提案达成相对高的共识可谓相当罕见。关于此一草案的原始名称、提案人与介绍,参见前注33及相关本文。
作者:孙远钊
编辑:Sharon
扫码购买观看(长期有效)
(www.caiips.com)
(www.giips.cn)
(www.meddeviceip.com)
(www.pharmaip.cn)
(www.ipforefront.com)