Front Cell Neurosci 综述︱小胶质细胞:缺血性脑卒中细胞间通讯的枢纽
撰文︱廉璐,张云莎,徐士欣
责编︱王思珍
缺血性脑卒(ischemia stroke,IS),多因大脑中动脉栓塞(middle cerebral artery occlusion,MCAO)所致,是全球范围内致残和致死的主要原因之一。小胶质细胞对缺血很敏感,可在IS发病后几分钟内作出快速反应,驱动急性炎症,启动防御和修复机制,维持大脑内环境的稳定。小胶质细胞介导的炎症是IS的病理标志。然而小胶质细胞的功能不局限于免疫反应,它们是IS细胞间通讯的枢纽。小胶质细胞可通过与其他胶质细胞(星形胶质细胞、少突胶质细胞)相互作用,指导神经发生,调节神经功能,促进突触形成,保持血脑屏障的完整性。同时,小胶质细胞可以通过细胞间的相互作用来决定中枢神经系统中细胞群的命运。靶向小胶质细胞在IS治疗中具有重要意义,深入探讨小胶质细胞与中枢驻留细胞和浸润细胞之间的交流,以及这些交流如何影响缺血性卒中的病程,将有助于IS治疗工具的开发和临床应用。
2022年04月18日,天津中医药大学第一附属医院徐士欣团队在《细胞神经科学前言》(Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience )上发表了题为“Microglia: the hub of intercellular communication in ischemic stroke”的最新综述文章,阐述了小胶质细胞在缺血性脑卒中病理中的作用,并针对小胶质细胞与中枢神经系统其他驻留细胞与浸润细胞间的细胞交流机制以及其在缺血性脑卒中病程中发挥的作用进行了详细综述,基于此对临床针对小胶质细胞的单靶点与多靶点的治疗方式进行展望,以期实现缺血性卒中临床治疗方式的创新与开发。
研 究 进 展
MG在IS中发挥神经损伤及神经保护作用,这与其功能表型有关。研究表明,IS后6h即可在缺血半暗带检测到M1-MG,24h后逐渐向缺血半暗带和梗死核心区扩展。由M1-MG引起的急性炎症可清除细胞碎片并限制梗死灶的扩大。M2-MG激活是调节炎症反应的关键,对伤口愈合和炎症抑制至关重要。研究发现,在IS急性期,M2-MG的特征性标志物CD206和Ym1在缺血核心区表达,两种标记物分别在IS后6h或12h被检测到,并在24h左右达到峰值。然而,在未来2周内,在核心区域占主导地位的M2-MG将逐渐转向M1-MG。M1-MG发展为一种高度促氧化的表型,促进了脑内急性炎症向慢性炎症的转变,加重神经元的死亡。
除了调节神经炎症,MG还参与中风的其他病理事件,如星形胶质细胞的激活、血脑屏障的改变、再髓鞘化和外周免疫细胞反应。而MG与众多细胞之间的沟通与MG的促炎表型和抗炎表型密切相关。
一、小胶质细胞和大脑常驻细胞之间的通迅
IS发病过程中神经血管单位(NVU)发挥重要作用,MG作为关键的免疫前哨细胞,与NUV中的其他成分相互作用,形成一个复杂的网络,参与IS的进展(图1)。
图1 小胶质细胞与神经系统驻留细胞的双向交流
(图源:Yunsha Zhang et al.,Front in Cell Neurosci, 2022)
1、神经元
2、星形胶质细胞
IS发生后,激活的星形胶质细胞呈现出与小胶质细胞类似的功能表型,促炎表型A1和抗炎表型A2。越来越多的证据表明,MG-星形细胞串扰是中枢神经系统疾病中神经功能障碍的基础。MG通常比星形胶质细胞对病理刺激反应更快,可诱导星形胶质细胞激活并决定星形胶质细胞的命运。激活MG分泌IL-1α、TNF-α和C1q以诱导A1星形胶质细胞。而A1星形胶质细胞诱导神经元和少突胶质细胞的死亡。TNF-α依赖的自分泌/旁分泌信号通路通过SDF1α-CXCR4信号通路导致星形胶质细胞释放谷氨酸[6]。MG还可诱导星形胶质细胞的神经保护表型(A2型),减少卒中后炎症反应。M2-MG来源的富含miR-124的EVs可抑制星形胶质细胞增殖,从而减少脑卒中后瘢痕的形成,促进脑卒中后的恢复[7]。同时,星形胶质细胞通过其分泌的分子调节MG的表型和功能。体外研究表明,TNF-α诱导星形胶质细胞释放CCL2刺激MG向M1极化方向转化,增强MG的迁移能力[8]。星形胶质细胞也可以产生大量的IL-17A,通过IL-17A受体的信号通路,促进MG极化至M1表型[9]。星形胶质细胞来源的含有miR-873a-5p的外泌体可通过降低细胞外调节蛋白激酶(ERK)和NF-κB/p65的磷酸化水平,显著抑制LPS诱导的M1-MG表型转化和随后的炎症反应[10]。使用星形胶质细胞培养条件培养基(ACM)处理MG,发现ACM通过诱导hemeoxygenase-1的表达抑制由IFN-γ诱导的MG炎症反应[11]。此外,活化的MG产生IL-10刺激星形胶质细胞分泌TGF-β,减弱MG[12]的激活,形成负反馈回路。
3、少突胶质细胞
4、微血管内皮细胞
二、MG与中枢神经系统浸润细胞之间的通讯
图2 小胶质细胞与外周免疫细胞的双向交流
(图源:Yunsha Zhang et al.,Front in Cell Neurosci, 2022)
1、中性粒细胞
中性粒细胞最先达到脑组织,卒中后一小时内即可被检测到,3h后显著增加,24h后达到峰值,7d后稳定消散。中性粒细胞在血管中时即可发挥有害作用,浸润到脑组织后则损伤神经元扩大梗死灶。有证据表明,小胶质细胞可吞噬凋亡及存活的中性粒细胞来消除其神经毒性[26]。中性粒细胞N2极化促进中性粒细胞被MG/巨噬细胞吞噬,减轻脑水肿和梗死程度[27]。
2、NK细胞
3、单核细胞/巨噬细胞
4、T细胞
T细胞在缺血大脑中扮演不同的角色,与功能亚型相关。T细胞分为αβ和γδ亚群。αβ亚群又分为CD8+T淋巴细胞(CTL)、CD4+T辅助细胞(Th)和调节性T细胞(Treg)3个亚型。CTL可能早在中风发作后3h就被招募,然后通过直接或间接杀死靶细胞而加重脑损伤。梗死边缘区存在γδT细胞,其数量在IS后第1天至第6天增加,第3天达到峰值。缺血半暗带内还可见少量双阴性T细胞(CD3+CD4-CD8-T)。Th细胞根据其细胞因子分泌谱在功能上可分为Th1、Th2和Th17细胞。
Th1/Th17 在IS后24h内,Th1细胞开始浸润软脑膜,7d时在梗死周围和梗死区出现大量Th1细胞浸润。Th1细胞与M1-MG一起产生高水平的促炎细胞因子、iNOS和神经毒性物质,诱导炎症反应,加速IS后的脑损伤。研究表明,Th1细胞可产生可溶性细胞因子如IFN-γ,使MG表型转变为M1型,从而增加继发性缺血损伤[36]。M1-MG还表达趋化因子如CXCL9和CXCL10,这些趋化因子招募Th1细胞进行炎症反应[37]。与Th1细胞一样,Th17细胞与M1-MG细胞相互作用,发挥促炎作用[38]。Th17细胞可通过选择性IL17促进MG向M1表型极化,从而放大炎症作用[39]。而M1-MG通过分泌IL-6和IL-23诱导Th17细胞分化,从而共同促进免疫应答[40]。
Th2 在IS发生24小时后,软脑膜附近出现Th2细胞。Torres等人认为Th2仅在细胞因子IL-12或IL-4的刺激下产生内源性产生IFN-γ和IL-4[41]。研究表明,M2巨噬细胞分泌的细胞因子刺激Th2细胞产生高水平的IL-4和IL-10,进而促进M2-MG极化[42]。同时,M2-MG通过分泌IL-4、CCL17、CCL22和CCL24等因子,促进Th2细胞的募集和极化,从而增强2型反应,对卒中后炎症具有抑制作用[43]。
Treg IS发生后的第一周,梗死区及其周围的Treg数量增加,并在2个月内保持较高水平。Treg在IS中发挥着双刃剑的作用,但以神经保护作用为主。Treg可通过分泌IL-10和TGF-β,调节脑缺血时小胶质/巨噬细胞向M2型极化,从而保护大脑免受继发性损伤[44]。此外,Treg通过分泌骨桥蛋白促进MG介导的组织修复[45]。反过来,M2-MG还可以促进Treg的分化,缓解神经炎症[46]。
5、B细胞
6、树突状细胞
总 结 与 展 望
MG作为中枢神经系统的免疫前哨细胞,在缺血性损伤时被优先激活并吞噬受损神经元或细胞碎片。此外,激活的MG与其他神经系统驻留细胞,如神经元、星形胶质细胞和微血管内皮细胞直接或间接地相互交谈。这些细胞相互作用,或者进一步形成反馈回路,参与中风病理事件。众多的细胞信号参与了细胞间对话,值得一提的是,细胞外囊泡在其对话中的作用越来越受到关注。卒中后炎症信号的级联反应导致血脑屏障的破坏,随后外周免疫细胞大量浸润,参与缺血性脑损伤的继发性进展。MG一方面监测这些浸润性免疫细胞,另一方面,MG的活动和功能也被这些细胞重塑。
综上所述,以MG为中心的细胞间通讯在IS发生过程中发挥了神经保护或神经毒性作用。这种双重作用与细胞的功能亚型和中风病程的发展阶段有关。由于MG可能是许多细胞信号的整合者,针对MG功能的治疗策略可能发展成为未来的卒中辅助治疗。然而,到目前为止,MG整体抑制策略(minocycline,PLX3397)从动物模型到人体的转化还没有产生积极的结果。因此,未来的治疗策略或可靶向特定的MG亚群或功能,或通过其他细胞间接调节MG功能。基于临床转化试验的结果,多靶点神经保护剂的研究应成为今后脑卒中治疗研究的热点。
原文链接:https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fncel.2022.889442/full
天津中医药大学中西医结合学院张云莎副教授与天津中医药大学第一附属医院博士研究生廉璐为共同第一作者,硕士研究生付榕、刘珏伶、单晓倩,中西医结合学院教师靳杨对本文作出了重要贡献。徐士欣副教授为本论文的通讯作者。该研究得到了国家自然科学基金(No. 81774059)、天津市自然科学基金(No.19JCZDJC37100)、天津中医药大学中西医结合学院基金(No.ZXYKYQDLX202001)资助。
通讯作者徐士欣(左);共同作者张云莎(中)、廉璐(右)。
(照片提供自:天津中医药大学第一附属医院徐士欣团队)
论文参与者:付榕、刘珏伶、单晓倩、靳杨(从左到右)。
(照片提供自:天津中医药大学第一附属医院徐士欣团队)
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